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ASSIGNMENT (15%) Connecting Body Systems-Integumentary System The main function of the skin is to protect the entire body, including all of its organs, from the external environment. Specific functional relationships between the skin and other body systems are summarized below. Blood, lymph, and immune Skin is the first line of defense against the invasion of pathogens in the body. Cardiovascular • Cutaneous blood vessels dilate and con- strict to help regulate body temperature. Digestive Skin absorbs vitamin D (produced when skin is exposed to sunlight) needed for intestinal absorption of calçium. • Excess calories are stored as subcuta- neous fat. Endocrine Subcutaneous layer of the skin stores adipose tissue when insulin secretions cause excess carbohydrate intake to fat storage. Female Reproductive Subcutaneous receptors provide pleasura- ble sensations associated with sexual behavior. Skin stretches to accommodate the grow- ing fetus during pregnancy. Genitourinary • Receptors in the skin respond to sexual stimuli. • Skin provides an alternative route for excreting salts and nitrogenous wastes the form of perspiration. Musculoskeletal • Skin synthesizes vitamin D needed for absorption of calcium essential for muscle contraction. Skin also synthesizes vitamin needed for growth, repair, and maintenance of bones. Nervous • Cutaneous receptors detect stimuli related to touch, pain, pressure, and temperature. Respiratory • Skin temperature may influence respiratory rate. As temperature increases, respi- ratory rate may also increase. • Hairs of the nasal cavity filter particles from inspired air before it reaches the lower respiratory tract.

Pathology General appearance and condition of the skin are clinically important because they may provide clues to body conditions or dysfunctions. Pale skin may indicate shock; red, flushed, very warm skin may indicate fever and infection. A rash may indicate allergies or local infections. Even chewed fingernails may be a clue to emotional problems. For diagnosis, treatment, and management of skin disorders, the medical services of a specialist may be warranted. Oncology Neoplasms are abnormal growths of new tissue that are classified as benign or malignant. Benign neoplasms are noncancerous growths composed of the same type of cells as the tissue in which they are growing. They harm the individual only insofar tures, excision is necessary. Malignant

neoplasms are composed of cells that are invasive and spread to remote regions of the body. These cells show altered function, altered appearance, and uncontrolled growth. They invade surrounding tissue and, ultiThe tumor, node, metastasis (TNM) system of staging is used to identify the invasiveness of the malignant tumor. It also helps the oncologist The TNM system stages tumors according to three basic criteria: • T-size and invasiveness of the primary tumor •N-nodal involvement • M-spreading of the primary tumor to remote regions of the body (metastasis). Burns Burns are tissue injuries caused by contact with thermal, chemical, electrical, or radioactive agents. Although burns generally occur on the skin, they can also affect the respiratory and digestive tract linings. Burns that have a local effect are not serious as those that have a systemic effect. First-degree (superficial) burns are the least seri- ous type of burn because they injure only the top layers of the skin, the epidermis. These burns are most often caused by brief contact with either dry or moist heat (thermal burn), spending too much time in the sun (sunburn), or exposure to chemicals. Injury is restricted to local effects, such as skin redness (erythema) and acute sensitivity to sensory stimuli (hyperesthesia), such as touch, heat, or cold. Generally, blisters do not form and the burn heals without scar formation. Second- degree (partial-thickness) burns are deep burns that damage both the epidermis and part of the dermis. These burns may be caused by contact with flames, hot liquids, or chemicals. Symptoms mimic those of first-degree burns, but fluid-filled blisters (vesicles or bullae) form and the burn may heal with little or no scarring. epidermis and dermis are destroyed and some of ing the skin waxy and charred with insensitivity to extremely hot water, or clothing that catches fire. In third-degree (full-thickness) burns, the the underlying connective tissue is damaged, leav- touch. The underlying bones, muscles, and tendons may also be damaged. These burns may be caused by corrosive chemicals, flames, electricity, or extremely hot objects; immersion of the body in extremely hot water , or clothing that catches fire abscess Localized collection of pus at the site of an infection (characteristically staphylococcal infection) When a localized abscess originates in a bair follicle, it is called a furuncle, or boil. A cduster of furuncles in the subcutaneous tissue results in the formation of a carbuncle. Inflammatory disease of the sebaceous glands and hair follicles of the skin with characteristic lesions that include blackheads (comedos), inflamma- tory papules, pustules, nodules, and cysts; usually associated with sebor- rhea; also called acne vulgaris acne AK-ne Acne results from thickening of the follicular opening, increased sebum produc- rion, and tbe presence of bacteria. It is ássociated with an inflammatory rmponse. The face, neck, and sboulders are common sites for this condirion. Skin discoloration consisting of a large, irregularly formed hemorrhagic area with colors changing from blue-black to greenish browm or yellow; commonly called a bruise psoriasis so-RI-a-sis Chronic skin disease characterized by circumscribed red patches covered by thick, dry, silvery, adherent scales caused by excessive development of the basal layer of the epidermis (See Figure 5-9.) New psoriasis lesions tend to appear at sites of trauma. They may be found in any location but commonly on tbe scalp, knees, elbows, umbilicus, and genitalia. Treatment inchudes topical application of various medications, keratolytics. pho- totberapy, and ultraviolet ligbt therapy in an attempt to slow byperkeratosis. Vitiligo :Localized loss of skin pigmentation characterized by milk-white patches

skin test (ST) Any test in which a suspected allergen or sensitizer is applied to or inject- ed into the skin to determine the patient's sensitivity to it Most commonly used skin tests are the intradermal, patch, and scratch tests used for allergy testing. The intensity of the response is determined by the wheal- and-flare reaction after the suspected allergen is applied. Positive and negative controls used to verify normal skin reactivity biopsy BI-op-se Representative tissue sample removed from a body site for microscopic examination Skin biopsies are used to establish or confirm a diagnosis, estimate prognosis, or follow the course of disease. Any lesion suspected of malignancy is removed and - sent to the pathology laboratory for evaluation. Connecting Body Systems-Digestive System The main function of the digestive system is to provide vital nutrients for growth, maintenance, and repair of all organs and body cells. Specific functional relationships between the digestive system and other body systems are discussed below. Blood, lymph, and immune • Liver regulates blood glucose levels. • Digestive tract secretes acids and enzymes to provide a hostile environment for pathogens. • Intestinal walls contain lymphoid nodules that help prevent invasion of pathogens. • Digestive system absorbs vitamin K for blood clotting. Cardiovascular • Digestive system absorbs nutrients needed by the heart Endocrine • Liver eliminates hormones from the blood to end their activity. • Pancreas contains hormone-producing cells. Female reproductive • Digestive system provides adequate nutri tion, including fats, to make conception and normal fetal development possible. Digestive system provides nutrients for repair of endometrum following menstruation. Genitourinary • Digestive system provides adequate nutri- ents in the development of viable sperm. • Liver metabolizes hormones, toxins, and drugs to forms that can be excreted in unne. Integumentary • Digestive system supplies fats that provide insulation in the dermis and subcutaneous tissue. • Digestive system absorbs nutrients for maintenance, growth, and repair of the skin. Musculoskeletal • Digestive systern provides nutrients need- ed for energy fuel. • Digestive system absorbs calcium needed for bone salts and muscle contraction. • Liver removes lactic acid (resulting from muscle activity) from the blood Nervous: Digestive system supplies nutrients for normal neural functioning Digestive system provides nutrients for synthesis of neurotransmitters and elec- trolytes for transmission of a nervous impulse. • Liver plays a role in maintaining glucose levels for neural function. Respiratory • Digestive system absorbs nutrients needed by cells in the lungs and other tissues in the respiratory tract. • The pharynx is sharedby the digestive and respiratory systems The lowest portion of uo sa O qu sapiaip xu d a that leads to the lungs, called the trachea, and one Uhat leads to the stomach, called esophagus

bilirubin bil-1-ROO-bin Orange-colored or yellowish pigment in bile Bilirubin is formed principally by the breakdoun of bemoglobin im rad blond cells after termination of their normal lifespan. bolus Mass of masticated food ready to be swallowed BOlus Denotes a gland that secretes its products through excretory ducts to the surface of an organ or tissue or into a vessel exocrine EKS-6-krin EXO-; outside, outward -CTINE: SECrete Denotes a gland that SOCretes its products throngh excretory ducts to the surface of an organ or tissue or intó a vessel sphincter SFINGK-ter Circular band of muscle fibers that constricts a passage or closes a natural opening of the body An example of a sphincter is the lower esaphagenl (cardiac) sphincter that Constricts once food has passed into the stomach. or/o mouth or/al (OR-al): pertaining to the mouth -al: pertaining to stomat/o stomat/itis (sto-ma-TIns); inflammation of the mouth -itis: inflammation gloss/o tongue gloss/ectomy (gloa-EK-to-me): removal of all or part off the tongue -ectomy: cxcision, removal lingu/o lingu/al (LING-gwal): pertaining to the tongue ak pertaining to bucc/o cheek bucc/al (B ŪK-al): pertaining to the cheek -al: pertaining to cheil/o lip cheil/o/plasty (Kl-lö-plas-te): surgical repair of a defective lip labi/o medar požins Aysvyd- labi/al (1A-be-al): pertaining to the lips, particularly the lipa of the mouth al: pertaining to dent/o dent/ist (DEN-1st) specialist who diagnoses and treats diseases and disor- ders of tecth -it: specialixt teeth orth/odont/ist (or tho DÔN nst): denrist who specializes in cnrecting and preventing irregularities of abaormally positioned or aligned teeth orth: straight. ist specialisr odont/o gingiv/ectomy (jin-jx VEK tõ-me); excislon of diseased gingival tise -Petomy cxcision, removal Gingrvectomy is performed as a surgical trearment for periodentat diserie. gingiv/o gum(s) saliva, salivary gland sial/o/lith (sx-AL-o-lhth): cakulus formed in a salivary gland or dut -lith: stone, calculus sial/o Esophagus, Pharynx, and Stomach F-a-go-skop): instrument used to examine the esophag/o/scope (e-S esophagus -NOope: insrrument for examining esophag/o esophagus pharyng/o/tonsill/itis (Fa-ring-gy>-ton-sE-LI-ng inflaznmation of the pliar- ynx and tonsils tonsill; tonitils. atis inflammation pharyng/o pharynx (throat) Elements cont'd gastr/o stomach gastr/algia (gas-TRAL-je-a): pain in the stomach; also called afomacbache algia: pain Pylorio Pylorus pylor/o/spasm (pl-LOR-o-pazm): Involuntary contraction of the pyloric -phincter of the stomach, as in pyloric stenosis Hpasm: İnwoluntary contraction, twitching Small Intestine duoden/o duodenum (first part of small intestine) duoden/o/ wcopy (dù-od-e-NÔS-ko-pe); visual examinstion of the duodenum –scopy: visual examination enter/o intestine (usually small intestine) enter/o/pathy (en-ter-OP-a-the): discase of the Intestine -pathy: disease jejun/o jejunum (second part of small. intestine) jejun/o/haphy (je-joo-NOR-1fe); suture of the jejunum -rrbaphy NuEure ile/o ileum (third iHe/o/stony (11-e-OS-to-mek creation of an opening between the lleum and the abdominal wall stomy*: korming an opening (moHuth) An ileosromy creates an opening on the surface of the abdomen to allew feees re be discharyed inso u bag tworn on the abdomen, part of small intestine) Large Intestine append/ectormy (ap-en-DEK-to-me): excision of the appendix append/o appendix Appendecamy is performed 10 remove a diseuzsed appendix in dangerof rapruring. appendicitis (a-pendi-Sl-tis): inflammation of the -ppendix -itis inflammation appendic/o col/o/stomy (ko-L OS-to-me): creation of an opeing between the colon and the abdominal wall Atomy", torming an opening (mouth) A colostomy creates a place for fecal marrer to exit the body orber than through the anus. col/o colon colon/o/scopy (ko- lon-OS-k-pe): visual examination of the colon colon/o sigmoid/o/tomy (sig-moyd- OTo-me): incision of the sigmoid colon fomy: incision

Colonorcopy u performed with an dongated endescope called a colanearope sigmoid colon sigmold/o Terminal End of Large Intestine rect/o rectum rect/o/cele (REK-D-sël): herniarion or protrusion of the rectumt also called proctocete ele hernia, swelling proctvo anus, rectum proct/o/logist (prokTÖL-0-JIst): physician who specializes in treating disor- ders of the colon, rectum, and anus Hogist; specialist in the study of an/o anus peri/an/al (për-e-A-nal): pertaining to the area around the anus peris arcund al pertaining to Accessory Organs of Digestion hepat/o hepat/o/megaly (hep a to MÉC→ k) enlargement of the liver megały: endargement liver pancreat/o/lysis (pan-kreaTOL-14) destruction of the pancreas by Pancreatic enzymex sis separation; destruction, Exaening pancreat/o panereas cholangi/ole (ko-LAN je o): snmall terminal portion of the bile dut ade: small, minute chol/e/lith (KO-k-hthž gallurone Ath cakualus, stne Galkstones are solid mEEN COmpasef of bile anl cholesterel rhat form in the gall- bladder aHt conumon bile duet. cholangi/o bile vessel chol/e** bile, gall cholecystřectomy (k de-is-1K-t0-me) removal of he gallbladdler ectomy: cxcision, remHIval ChołecystecFomy is performed by laproscopic or epen surgery. cholecyst/o gallbladder choledoch/o/plasty ((ko-LED oko plas-re) urgical repair of the common bile duct -plasty: surggical repair choledoch/o bile duct hyper/emesis (hl-për-EM e-sIs); Excessive somiting byper- excessive, above normal chol/e/lithiasis (ko-le-n-TH1-a ) presence or fornation of gallstones in the gallbladder or common bile duct ihat e bile. gall Wth: stone galculus Wben gallstones form in the comman trile shucr, rhe conditiorn is iadlend...