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1. What is language? A language is a structured system

of communication used by humans, based on speech and gesture (spoken language), sign, or often writing. 2. Explain (a) the knowledge of sounds, (b) the knowledge of words; (3) the creativity of linguistic knowledge. (a) the knowledge of sounds: When we know a language, we know what sounds (or signs) are used in the language and which sounds (or signs) are not. • This also includes knowing how the sounds of the language can be combined – Which sounds may start a word – Which sounds may end a word – Which sounds may follow each other within a word. (b) the knowledge of words Knowing a language also means identifying certain strings of sounds as meaningful words  Most words in all languages are arbitrary connections of sound to meaning.  The conventional and arbitrary relationship between form and meaning is also true in sign languages  Sound symbolism: there are some word whose pronunciation seems to reflect the meaning (c)the creativity of linguistic knowledge. Every language has an infinite number of possible sentences • Knowing a language enables you to: – Create a sentence that has never been uttered before – Understand a sentence that has never been uttered before • Most sentences we use are new; very few sentences are stored in our brains 3. How the relation between the form and the meaning of language?

Form in linguistics and language refers to the symbols used to represent meaning. Each form has a particular meaning in a particular context. This cannot be stressed enough.  It implies that a form can have different meanings in different contexts. However, the range of meanings for a form is usually limited to a prototype or prototypes based around an image schema to a set of extensions. o This is referred to as polysemy (think of the different meanings listed in a dictionary of a particular word). Note that the relationship of the form to meaning is largely arbitrary. 

Meaning changes over time for a form. An example of this is ‘gay’. i. ii. iii.

Two hundred years ago this word had meant ‘happy’. Today it signifies a social group. Furthermore, ‘gay’ no longer has negative connotations that it did just 30 years ago.

4. What is grammar? Grammar = the knowledge speakers have about the units and rules of their language – Rules for combining sounds into words, word formation, making sentences, assigning meaning – When a sentence is ungrammatical in a linguistic sense, it means that it breaks the rules of the shared mental grammar of the language 5. What id descriptive/ prescriptive grammar?  Descriptive grammar: a true model of the mental grammar of language speakers – In other words, a descriptive grammar describes the linguistic rules that people use when they speak their language

– The point of view of a descriptive grammarian is that grammars from every language and dialect are equal  Prescriptive Grammar: attempts to prescribe what rules of language people should use to speak “properly” – The view of a prescriptive grammarian is that some grammars are better than others - During the Renaissance, a middle class of English speakers wished to talk like the upper class, so they started buying handbooks that told them how to speak “properly” – Bishop Robert Lowth’ s A Short Introduction to English Grammar with Critical Notes (1762 Language

1.

distinguishes humans from animals. humanity

2.

3.

To understand our , we must understand the nature of language. Knowing a language means knowing the sounds words

4.

and the in that language. When we have knowledge of words, we know that certain sequences of sounds signify certain meanings

5.

concepts or . The relationship between speech sounds and the meanings they represent it is an

arbitrary

one.

creativity

6.

7.

The of language means being able to produce and understand new sentences never spoken or heard before. Grammar is the knowledge speakers have about the

rules

Descriptive

8.

of their language.

grammars do not tell the speakers how they should speak; they describe the basic linguistic knowledge.

Prescriptive

9.

grammars prescribe the rules the speakers should follow. grammatical

10. sentences are the ones that conform to the rules of mental grammar (as described by the linguist).

  



Morphology concerns with word structure and word formation, i.e., how a word is structured by looking at the morpheme level and how a word is formed. Morphemes: the minimal meaningful units There are free and bound morphemes. Free morphemes can constitute words by themselves (e.g.: play, work, man, …) while bound morphemes are never words by themselves but just parts of words, or in other words, bound morphemes have to be combined with other morphemes to be words (e.g.: -ion, re-, -ject- , …) The position of a morpheme in a word decides whether it is a prefix, an infix, or a suffix. If a morpheme occurs before other morphemes in a word, we call it a prefix. If it occurs after others, it is a suffix. If it is inserted into others, it is an infix.

   

We can use the term affixes to refer to any of the aforementioned. Root is a morpheme that contributes the most meaning to a word. A root can be a free or a bound morpheme (E.g.: paint in the word Painter) When we add an affix to a root, a stem is formed. Sometimes the term “base” is used to refer to any root or stem which an affix is attached to.

concepts

1.

2.

3.

Content words denote such as objects, actions and attributes, and ideas that we can think about. Nouns , verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are content words. Function words do not have clear lexical meaning or obvious concepts associated with them.They grammatical

specify relations and have little or no semantic content. Free

4.

5.

6.

morphemes may constitute words by themselves. Bound morphemes are never words by themselves but are always parts of words. Prefixes, suffixes, and infixes are morphemes.

bound

7.

Prefixes are morphemes that occur morphemes.

8.

Suffixes are morphemes that occur morphemes.

before

after

other other

inserted

Infixes are morphemes that are into other morphemes. 10. With the addition of each new affix to the base, a 9.

new

stem

and a new word are formed.

Derivational

morphemes have meaning. They play the main role in constituting the meaning of words. derivational 12. Roots, prefixes and most suffixes are morphemes. 13. The form that results from the addition of a 11.

derivational morpheme is called a

derived

word.

Inflectional

14.

morphemes have no meaning but have certain grammatical functions.

15. Inflectional

morphemes never speech of the stems

change

the parts of

16. The derived word may also be of a DIFFERENT word class than the original word. 17. Inflectional morphemes are always bound morpheme 18. When a root is combined with an affix, it forms a STEM 19. The word base is sometimes used to mean any root/stem to which a(n) AFFIX is attached. 20. What is morphology? The study of the internal structure of words, and of the rules by which words are formed

21. What is a morpheme? Minimal meaning full units of a language which may constitute words or parts of words 22. INFLECTIONAL morphemes have no meaning but have certain grammatical functions. 23. The meaning of a morpheme must be CONSTANT 24. A single word may be composed of 1 OR MORE MORPHEMES

1. The combination of words into phrases, clauses, sentences is refered to as

syntactic

structure.

2. Syntax is the set of rules that govern the sentences in linguistics. order

structure

of

3. Syntactic rules determine the of words in a sentence, and how the words are groups.

4. “Stand alone”, “replacement by a pronoun”, “move as a unit” are

constituency

tests.

5. A family of expression that can substitute for one another with loss of grammaticality is called syntactic

category

.

6. “This, and, must, him” belong to the

functional

category.

7. “Happiness, often, across, believe, hopeful” belong to the

lexical

category.

8. “The man with a smile”, “very happy”, “more brightly”, “on the hill” belong to the

phrasal

category.

9. “eat his lunch on the field” is a(n) 10. “extremely grim” is a(n)

adjective

verb

phrase.

phrase.

11. syntactic categories include: 1. lexical category, phrasal category, functional 12. We use TREE DIAGRAMS to present the constituency structure of a sentence 13. Syntax is the study of processes according to which morphemes combine to form words 14. Syntax is the study of the ways in which WORK COMBINE TO UNITS such as phrases, clauses, and sentences. 15. Word classes are groups of words which FUNCTION SIMILARLY in a sentence. 16. A family of expressions that can substitute for one another without LOSS OF GRAMMATICALLY is called a grammatical category 17. There are 5 forms: nouns, verbs, adj(s), adv(s), and UNFLECTED WORDS 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

The membership in a class is determined by .THE FORM of the word. The form-classes are LARGE and OPENbecause they often admit new members. Structural classes are...SMALL, STABLE, CLOSED Structural classes have ...GRAMMATICAL FUNTIONS There are FOUR main positional classes: nominal, verbal, adjectival, adverbial The membership in these classes is determined by the POSITION or WORD ORDER in a sentence. 12. There are two kinds: INTRANSITIVE and TRANSITIVE verb-adverbial composite. 13. A VERB- ADVERBIAL COMPOSITE consists of two words, a verb followed by an adverbial such as up, down, in, out, over. 14. Word groups as well as single words can occupy ADVERBIAL POSITIONS

15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

ADJECTIVALS occupy certain characteristic sentence positions. Verbal comes after the OPENING NOMINAL VERBALS are those forms that occupy verb positions. VERBALS are those forms that occupy VERB POSITIONS Word groups as well as individual words can be NOMINALS

20. The rich live on the bay. => Subj slot is a(n) ...Aj 21. Steadily is the best way to work. => Subj slot is a(n) ... Av 22. Swimming develops the lungs. => Subj slot is a ... verb form 23. We enjoyed the game. => ... slot is a noun form. DO 24. What can one expect from the young? => ... slot is a Aj form. OP 25. Now is the best time to go. => Subj slot is a ... non-suffixing form 26. https://quizlet.com/vn/615030606/syntax-chapter-2-flash-cards/

II. Extra exercise on Morphology and Syntax. 28. 1. Analyze the words into morphemes. Write FB, BB for bases and DP, DS, IS for affixes. 27.

29. (1)

unfairly

30. (2)

interestingly 31. (3) kindnesses 32. (4) porter 33. (5) comfortable 34. (6) snowboarding 35. (7) unforgiveable 36. (8) deformity 37. (9) geology 38. (10) oxen 39.

2. Analyze the following sentences in term of tree diagram.

40. (1) I was eating my lunch.

41. (2) He walked to the library. 42. (3) She cut the bread for the little boy yesterday. 43. (4) That freshman cuts his class every Wednesday. 44. (5) She must have been sleeping. 45. (6) The boy's jump saved his life. 46. (7) He was happy about Jane's writing. 47. (8) That is my father's photograph. 48. (9) The band is playing very well today. 49. (10) The staff of the college discussed their last editio

1. Semantic features are the ________ units of meaning in a word.

smallest

The correct answer is 2. Tautologies are sentences that are always ________ regardless of the circumstances. TRUE

The correct answer is 3. “Donald Trump is the US president.” is a(n) ________ sentence. synthetic

The correct answer is 4. “He’s looking for glasses.” is a ________ ambiguous sentence. lexically

The correct answer is

5. Whenever the first sentence is true the second one is also true, in all conceivable circumstances. This meaning relation is called ________. entailment

The correct answer is 6. Two sentences are ________ if they entail each other. synonymou

The correct answer is 7. ________ ambiguity occurs when phrases (including sentences) have more than one meaning. Structural

The correct answer is 8. ________ ambiguity occurs when one word in a phrase has more than one meaning. Lexical

The correct answer is 9. ________ is the relationship between language and the world. Reference

The correct answer is 10.The real thing that is referred to by a linguistic expression is called ________. referent

The correct answer is 11.The phrase “Ton Duc Thang University” has ________ reference. constant

The correct answer is 12.________ are words or expressions that have the same meaning in some or all contexts. Synonyms

The correct answer is 13.When a word has multiple meanings that are related, it is said to be ________. polysemous

The correct answer is 14.Sets of words that belong to more general terms are called ________. hyponyms

The correct answer is 15.The pair of words teacher-student are ________. antonyms

The correct answer is

with Critical Notes (1762 Language

distinguishes humans from animals. humanity 11. To understand our , we must understand the nature of language. 12. Knowing a language means knowing the sounds

10.

words

and the in that language. 13. When we have knowledge of words, we know that certain sequences of sounds signify certain meanings

concepts or . 14. The relationship between speech sounds and the meanings they represent it is an 15. The

arbitrary

one.

creativity

of language means being able to produce and understand new sentences never spoken or heard before. 16. Grammar is the knowledge speakers have about the

rules

of their language.

Descriptive

17.

grammars do not tell the speakers how they should speak; they describe the basic linguistic knowledge. Prescriptive

18.

grammars prescribe the rules the speakers should follow. grammatical

10. sentences are the ones that conform to the rules of mental grammar (as described by the linguist)....