Callister Materials science and Engineer PDF

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1496T_fm_i-xxvi 1/6/06 02:56 Page iii Materials Science and Engineering An Introduction 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 1/6/06 22:25 Page v SEVENTH EDITION Materials Science and Engineering An Introduction William D. Callister, Jr. Department of Metallurgical Engineering The University of Utah with special contribu...

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1496T_fm_i-xxvi 1/6/06 02:56 Page iii

Materials Science and Engineering An Introduction

1496T_fm_i-xxvi 1/6/06 22:25 Page v

SEVENTH EDITION

Materials Science and Engineering An Introduction

William D. Callister, Jr. Department of Metallurgical Engineering The University of Utah

with special contributions by David G. Rethwisch The University of Iowa

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

1496T_fm_i-xxvi 1/11/06 23:05 Page vi

Front Cover: A unit cell for diamond (blue-gray spheres represent carbon atoms), which is positioned above the temperature-versus-logarithm pressure phase diagram for carbon; highlighted in blue is the region for which diamond is the stable phase. Back Cover: Atomic structure for graphite; here the gray spheres depict carbon atoms. The region of graphite stability is highlighted in orange on the pressure-temperature phase diagram for carbon, which is situated behind this graphite structure.

ACQUISITIONS EDITOR MARKETING DIRECTOR SENIOR PRODUCTION EDITOR SENIOR DESIGNER COVER ART TEXT DESIGN SENIOR ILLUSTRATION EDITOR COMPOSITOR ILLUSTRATION STUDIO

Joseph Hayton Frank Lyman Ken Santor Kevin Murphy Roy Wiemann Michael Jung Anna Melhorn Techbooks/GTS, York, PA Techbooks/GTS, York, PA

This book was set in 10/12 Times Ten by Techbooks/GTS, York, PA and printed and bound by Quebecor Versailles. The cover was printed by Quebecor. This book is printed on acid free paper. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (508)750-8400, fax (508)750-4470. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158-0012, (212) 850-6011, fax (212) 850-6008, E-Mail: [email protected]. To order books or for customer service please call 1(800)225-5945. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Callister, William D., 1940Materials science and engineering : an introduction / William D. Callister, Jr.—7th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-471-73696-7 (cloth) ISBN-10: 0-471-73696-1 (cloth) 1. Materials. I. Title. TA403.C23 2007 620.1’1—dc22 2005054228 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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Dedicated to

my colleagues and friends in Brazil and Spain

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1496T_fm_i-xxvi 1/6/06 03:19 Page xv

Contents

LIST

OF

SYMBOLS xxiii

1. Introduction 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

1

Learning Objectives 2 Historical Perspective 2 Materials Science and Engineering 3 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering? 5 Classification of Materials 5 Advanced Materials 11 Modern Materials’ Needs 12 References 13

2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding 2.1

15

Learning Objectives 16 Introduction 16 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

16

2.2 2.3 2.4

Fundamental Concepts 16 Electrons in Atoms 17 The Periodic Table 23

2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8

Bonding Forces and Energies 24 Primary Interatomic Bonds 26 Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding 30 Molecules 32

ATOMIC BONDING

IN

SOLIDS

24

Summary 34 Important Terms and Concepts 34 References 35 Questions and Problems 35

3. The Structure of Crystalline Solids 3.1

Learning Objectives 39 Introduction 39

3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6

Fundamental Concepts 39 Unit Cells 40 Metallic Crystal Structures 41 Density Computations 45 Polymorphism and Allotropy 46

CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

38

39

• xv

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xvi • Contents 3.7

Crystal Systems 46 CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC POINTS, DIRECTIONS, PLANES 49

3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12

Point Coordinates 49 Crystallographic Directions 51 Crystallographic Planes 55 Linear and Planar Densities 60 Close-Packed Crystal Structures

AND

3.17

61

Single Crystals 63 Polycrystalline Materials 64 Anisotropy 64 X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures 66 Noncrystalline Solids 71 Summary 72 Important Terms and Concepts 73 References 73 Questions and Problems 74

4. Imperfections in Solids 80

6. Mechanical Properties of Metals 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5

Learning Objectives 81 Introduction 81

6.9

POINT DEFECTS

6.10

4.2 4.3 4.4

Vacancies and Self-Interstitials 81 Impurities in Solids 83 Specification of Composition 85

81

88

4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8

Dislocations–Linear Defects 88 Interfacial Defects 92 Bulk or Volume Defects 96 Atomic Vibrations 96

4.9 4.10 4.11

General 97 Microscopic Techniques 98 Grain Size Determination 102

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION

5.1 5.2 5.3

AND

DESIGN/SAFETY

Variability of Material Properties 161 Design/Safety Factors 163 Summary 165 Important Terms and Concepts 166 References 166 Questions and Problems 166 Design Problems 172

97

Summary 104 Important Terms and Concepts 105 References 105 Questions and Problems 106 Design Problems 108

5. Diffusion

143

Tensile Properties 144 True Stress and Strain 151 Elastic Recovery after Plastic Deformation 154 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformation 154 Hardness 155 PROPERTY VARIABILITY FACTORS 161

6.11 6.12

137

Stress-Strain Behavior 137 Anelasticity 140 Elastic Properties of Materials 141 PLASTIC DEFORMATION

6.6 6.7 6.8

131

Learning Objectives 132 Introduction 132 Concepts of Stress and Strain 133 ELASTIC DEFORMATION

4.1

MISCELLANEOUS IMPERFECTIONS

Nonsteady-State Diffusion 114 Factors That Influence Diffusion 118 Other Diffusion Paths 125 Summary 125 Important Terms and Concepts 126 References 126 Questions and Problems 126 Design Problems 129

CRYSTALLINE AND NONCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS 63

3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16

5.4 5.5 5.6

109

Learning Objectives 110 Introduction 110 Diffusion Mechanisms 111 Steady-State Diffusion 112

7. Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms 174 7.1

Learning Objectives 175 Introduction 175 DISLOCATIONS DEFORMATION

7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7

PLASTIC 175

AND

Basic Concepts 175 Characteristics of Dislocations 178 Slip Systems 179 Slip in Single Crystals 181 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Materials 185 Deformation by Twinning 185

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Contents • xvii MECHANISMS OF STRENGTHENING METALS 188

IN

7.8 7.9 7.10

Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction 188 Solid-Solution Strengthening 190 Strain Hardening 191 RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION, GROWTH 194

7.11 7.12 7.13

AND

9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6

BINARY PHASE DIAGRAMS

GRAIN

9.7 9.8 9.9

Recovery 195 Recrystallization 195 Grain Growth 200 Summary 201 Important Terms and Concepts 202 References 202 Questions and Problems 202 Design Problems 206

9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13

8. Failure 8.1

207

Learning Objectives 208 Introduction 208 FRACTURE

8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6

9.14 9.15

208

Fundamentals of Fracture 208 Ductile Fracture 209 Brittle Fracture 211 Principles of Fracture Mechanics 215 Impact Fracture Testing 223 FATIGUE

227

8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11

Cyclic Stresses 228 The S–N Curve 229 Crack Initiation and Propagation 232 Factors That Affect Fatigue Life 234 Environmental Effects 237

8.12 8.13 8.14 8.15

Generalized Creep Behavior 238 Stress and Temperature Effects 239 Data Extrapolation Methods 241 Alloys for High-Temperature Use 242

CREEP

9.16 9.17 9.18 9.19 9.20

Summary 302 Important Terms and Concepts 303 References 303 Questions and Problems 304

10. Phase Transformations in Metals: Development of Microstructure and Alteration of Mechanical Properties 311 10.1

9.1

10.2 10.3

252

Learning Objectives 253 Introduction 253 DEFINITIONS

AND

BASIC CONCEPTS

10.4 253

290

The Iron–Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram 290 Development of Microstructure in Iron–Carbon Alloys 293 The Influence of Other Alloying Elements 301

Learning Objectives 312 Introduction 312 PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS

9. Phase Diagrams

258

Binary Isomorphous Systems 258 Interpretation of Phase Diagrams 260 Development of Microstructure in Isomorphous Alloys 264 Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous Alloys 268 Binary Eutectic Systems 269 Development of Microstructure in Eutectic Alloys 276 Equilibrium Diagrams Having Intermediate Phases or Compounds 282 Eutectic and Peritectic Reactions 284 Congruent Phase Transformations 286 Ceramic and Ternary Phase Diagrams 287 The Gibbs Phase Rule 287 THE IRON–CARBON SYSTEM

238

Summary 243 Important Terms and Concepts 245 References 246 Questions and Problems 246 Design Problems 250

Solubility Limit 254 Phases 254 Microstructure 255 Phase Equilibria 255 One-Component (or Unary) Phase Diagrams 256

312

Basic Concepts 312 The Kinetics of Phase Transformations 313 Metastable versus Equilibrium States 324

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xviii • Contents MICROSTRUCTURAL AND PROPERTY CHANGES IRON–CARBON ALLOYS 324

10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9

Isothermal Transformation Diagrams 325 Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams 335 Mechanical Behavior of Iron–Carbon Alloys 339 Tempered Martensite 343 Review of Phase Transformations and Mechanical Properties for Iron–Carbon Alloys 346 Summary 350 Important Terms and Concepts 351 References 352 Questions and Problems 352 Design Problems 356

11. Applications and Processing of Metal Alloys 358 11.1

OF

METAL ALLOYS

OF

METALS

382

11.4 11.5 11.6

Forming Operations 383 Casting 384 Miscellaneous Techniques 386

11.7 11.8 11.9

Annealing Processes 388 Heat Treatment of Steels 390 Precipitation Hardening 402

THERMAL PROCESSING

OF

METALS

Summary 453 Important Terms and Concepts 454 References 454 Questions and Problems 455 Design Problems 459

13. Applications and Processing of Ceramics 460 13.1

12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6

Learning Objectives 461 Introduction 461

Glasses 461 Glass–Ceramics 462 Clay Products 463 Refractories 464 Abrasives 466 Cements 467 Advanced Ceramics 468 OF

13.9

Fabrication and Processing of Glasses and Glass–Ceramics 471 13.10 Fabrication and Processing of Clay Products 476 13.11 Powder Pressing 481 13.12 Tape Casting 484 Summary 484 Important Terms and Concepts 486 References 486 Questions and Problems 486 Design Problem 488

Learning Objectives 415 Introduction 415

14. Polymer Structures

CERAMIC STRUCTURES

14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4

Crystal Structures 415 Silicate Ceramics 426 Carbon 430 Imperfections in Ceramics 434 Diffusion in Ionic Materials 438

OF

FABRICATION AND PROCESSING CERAMICS 471

12. Structures and Properties of Ceramics 414

415

442

12.8 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics 442 12.9 Stress–Strain Behavior 447 12.10 Mechanisms of Plastic Deformation 449 12.11 Miscellaneous Mechanical Considerations 451

387

Summary 407 Important Terms and Concepts 409 References 409 Questions and Problems 410 Design Problems 411

12.1

Ceramic Phase Diagrams 439 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8

359

Ferrous Alloys 359 Nonferrous Alloys 372 FABRICATION

12.7

TYPES AND APPLICATIONS CERAMICS 461

Learning Objectives 359 Introduction 359 TYPES

11.2 11.3

IN

14.5

489

Learning Objectives 490 Introduction 490 Hydrocarbon Molecules 490 Polymer Molecules 492 The Chemistry of Polymer Molecules 493 Molecular Weight 497

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Contents • xix 14.6 14.7 14.8 14.9 14.10 14.11 14.12 14.13 14.14

Molecular Shape 500 Molecular Structure 501 Molecular Configurations 503 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers 506 Copolymers 507 Polymer Crystallinity 508 Polymer Crystals 512 Defects in Polymers 514 Diffusion in Polymeric Materials 515 Summary 517 Important Terms and Concepts 519 References 519 Questions and Problems 519

15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6

OF

POLYMERS

MECHANISMS OF DEFORMATION AND FOR STRENGTHENING OF POLYMERS 535

15.7 15.8

15.9

Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers 535 Factors That Influence the Mechanical Properties of Semicrystalline Polymers 538 Deformation of Elastomers 541 CRYSTALLIZATION, MELTING, AND GLASS TRANSITION PHENOMENA IN POLYMERS 544

15.10 Crystallization 544 15.11 Melting 545 15.12 The Glass Transition 545 15.13 Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures 546 15.14 Factors That Influence Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures 547 POLYMER TYPES

15.15 15.16 15.17 15.18 15.19

16.1

560

Polymerization 561 Polymer Additives 563 Forming Techniques for Plastics 565 Fabrication of Elastomers 567 Fabrication of Fibers and Films 568

577

Learning Objectives 578 Introduction 578

16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9 16.10 16.11 16.12 16.13

580

Large-Particle Composites 580 Dispersion-Strengthened Composites 584 FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES

585

Influence of Fiber Length 585 Influence of Fiber Orientation and Concentration 586 The Fiber Phase 595 The Matrix Phase 596 Polymer-Matrix Composites 597 Metal-Matrix Composites 603 Ceramic-Matrix Composites 605 Carbon–Carbon Composites 606 Hybrid Composites 607 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites 607 STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES

610

16.14 Laminar Composites 610 16.15 Sandwich Panels 611 Summary 613 Important Terms and Concepts 615 References 616 Questions and Problems 616 Design Problems 619

17. Corrosion and Degradation of Materials 621

549

Plastics 549 Elastomers 552 Fibers 554 Miscellaneous Applications 555 Advanced Polymeric Materials 556

PROCESSING

PARTICLE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES

524

Stress–Strain Behavior 524 Macroscopic Deformation 527 Viscoelastic Deformation 527 Fracture of Polymers 532 Miscellaneous Mechanical Characteristics 533

AND

Summary 569 Important Terms and Concepts 571 References 571 Questions and Problems 572 Design Questions 576

16.2 16.3

Learning Objectives 524 Introduction 524 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR

15.20 15.21 15.22 15.23 15.24

16. Composites

15. Characteristics, Applications, and Processing of Polymers 523 15.1

POLYMER SYNTHESIS

17.1

Learning Objectives 622 Introduction 622

17.2 17.3

Electrochemical Considerations 623 Corrosion Rates 630

CORROSION

OF

METALS

622

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xx • Contents 17.4 Prediction of Corrosion Rates 631 17.5 Passivity 638 17.6 Environmental Effects 640 17.7 Forms of Corrosion 640 17.8 Corrosion Environments 648 17.9 Corrosion Prevention 649 17.10 Oxidation 651 CORROSION

OF

DEGRADATION

CERAMIC MATERIALS OF

POLYMERS

654

655

18.20 Types of Polarization 708 18.21 Frequency Dependence of the Dielectric Constant 709 18.22 Dielectric Strength 711 18.23 Dielectric Materials 711 OTHER ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS MATERIALS 711

18.24 Ferroelectricity 711 18.25 Piezoelectricity 712 Summary 713 Important Terms and Concepts 715 References 715 Questions and Problems 716 Design Problems 720

17.11 Swelling and Dissolution 655 17.12 Bond Rupture 657 17.13 Weathering 658 Summary 659 Important Terms and Concepts 660 References 661 Questions and Problems 661 Design Problems 644

18. Electrical Properties 18.1

665

Learning Objectives 666 Introduction 666 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION

18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.7 18.8 18.9

666

Ohm’s Law 666 Electrical Conductivity 667 Electronic and Ionic Conduction 668 Energy Band Structures in Solids 668 Conduction in Terms of Band and Atomic Bonding Models 671 Electron Mobility 673 Electrical Resistivity of Metals 674 Electrical Characteristics of Commercial Alloys 677 SEMICONDUCTIVITY

679

18.10 Intrinsic Semiconduction 679 18.11 Extrinsic Semiconduction 682 18.12 The Temperature Dependence of Carrier Concentration 686 18.13 Factors That Affect Carrier Mobility 688 18.14 The Hall Effect 692 18.15 Semiconductor Devices 694 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION POLYMERS 700

IN

IONIC CERAMICS

AND IN

18.16 Conduction in Ionic Materials 701 18.17 Electrical Properties of Polymers 701 DIELECTRIC BEHAVIOR

702

18.18 Capacitance 703 18.19 Field Vectors and Polarization 704

OF

19. Thermal Properties 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5

W1

Learning Objectives W2 Introduction W2 Heat Capacity W2 Thermal Expansion W4 Thermal Conductivity W7 Thermal Stresses W12 Summary W14 Important Terms and Concepts W15 References W15 Questions and Problems W15 Design Problems W17

20. Magnetic Properties

W19

Learning Objectives W20 Introduction W20 Basic Concepts W20 Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism W24 20.4 Ferromagnetism W26 20.5 Antiferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism W28 20.6 The Influence of Temperature on Magnetic Behavior W32 20.7 Domains and Hysteresis W33 20.8 Magnetic Anisotropy W37 20.9 Soft Magnetic Materials W38 20.10 Hard Magnetic Materials W41 20.11 Magnetic Storage W44 20.12 Superconductivity W47 20.1 20.2 20.3

Summary W50 Important Terms and Concepts W52 References W52 Questions and Problems W53 Design Problems W56

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Contents • xxi

21. 21.1

Optical Properties

Learning Objectives W58 Introduction W58 BASIC CONCEPTS

21.2 21.3 21.4

22.8 22.9

W57

ARTIFICIAL TOTAL HIP REPLACEMENT

W58

Electromagnetic Radiation W58 Light Interactions with Solids W60 Ato...