Chapter 10 - aggression PDF

Preview

Summary

Chapter 10 – AggressionBasically  Aggression is a part of human nature  It is widespread  Harming others is only one key motivators of aggression o Can be dialogical or political o Retributive  Aggression does not have to be extreme o can be as subtle as showing obvious boredom during a presenta...

Description

Chapter 10 – Aggression Basically  Aggression is a part of human nature  It is widespread  Harming others is only one key motivators of aggression o Can be dialogical or political o Retributive  Aggression does not have to be extreme o can be as subtle as showing obvious boredom during a presentation by another person o or deliberately ignoring them in a social setting  aggression can damage or even tear the fabric of social life apart. Roots of violence  biological factors o oldest and probably most famous explanation for human aggression is biological factors – seen as our basic nature as a species o famous supporter = Sigmund Freud  aggression stems mainly from a powerful death wish that all humans possess  this instinct is initially aimed at self-destruction, but is soon redirected outward, toward others o other theorists have suggested that  aggression springs mainly from an inherited fighting instinct which assures that only the strongest males will obtain mates and pass their genes on to the next generation. o These ideas were rejected for a long time  Human beings aggress against others in many different ways— everything from excluding them from social groups to performing overt acts of violence against them  How can these range of behaviours have a genetic basis?  The frequency of aggressive actions varies tremendously across human societies, so that it is much more likely to occur in some than in others.  Indeed, people in different cultures strongly differ in their support for aggressive or confrontational responses.  Collectivist societies more against than individualistic  Given such cultural differences in aggressive behaviour and support for aggressive responses to the same conflict situations how can this behaviour be genetically based o With the growth of the evolutionary perspective in psychology, however, the potential role of biology is being reconsidered.  Most social psychologists still reject innate (genetic) factor basis but some now accept the possibility that they play a role o Supportive evidence for evolutionary perspective  In the evolutionary past, males seeking desirable mates found it necessary to compete with other males.  One way of eliminating such competition is through successful aggression, which drives such rivals away.

Since males who were adept at such behaviour may have been more successful in securing mates and in transmitting their genes to offspring.  this may have led to the development of a genetically influenced tendency for males to aggress against other males.  But this tendency would have been weaker when aggression is directed towards women as it would have driven off mates due to the danger it poses to their mates o Some research findings are consistent with this reasoning. For instance, males tend to be more aggressive toward other males than toward females  However, while their frequency of aggression against others is considerably lower than that of males, females might aggress equally against males and females. o Research shows differences in the targets of aggression do not exist (or are weaker) among females Role of testosterone  not only may males gain access to desirable mates through defeating others but, in addition, winning contests actually increases their testosterone which, in turn, raises their motivation to attain such mates  research indicates that when men’s mating motivation is activated they do indeed become more aggressive toward other men, which is consistent with their goal of driving off potential rivals o this is especially likely to occur when only other males can observe their behaviour; if females are present, they do not become more aggressive, thus avoiding the possibility of turning off these potential mates o women often find men who are aggressive in public to be frightening rather than attractive. Role of status  Another reason why males may aggress against rivals is that if they succeed in driving off these rivals, not only does their level of testosterone increase, but they may gain in status— which then increases their attractiveness to at least some females.  There is some evidence that status and attraction are linked Chemical  More direct evidence for the role of genetic factors in aggression has been provided by research hundreds of children in Norway  It was found that children who differed in terms of a gene related to chemicals produced in the brain also differed in aggression  Those with one gene were more aggressive as rated by their teachers than those who possessed the other gene but only under extreme stress (abuse or serious illness)  When such stress was absent, the children with the gene that facilitated aggression actually became less aggressive. 







The researchers explained these findings by suggesting that from the point of view of survival, having both groups in the population is adaptive: o Those in the first group can cope better with changing environments, o while those in the second group do better in relatively stable environments. o genetic factors may play some role in human aggression, but their effects are complex and fundamentally depend on environmental factors. Drive theories: what motivates harming others o Rejection of instinctive aggression was countered by the argument that aggression stems mainly from an externally elicited drive to harm others o This can be clearly seen in the ‘drive theories of aggression’  external conditions, especially those that create frustration arouse a strong motive to harm others  when an aggressive drive is activated it can, in turn, lead to overt acts of aggression.  Such an aggressive drive can be initiated by several factors like the provocation from others or even by the presence of something like a weapon in the room o Most famous theory = the frustration-aggression hypothesis  suggests that frustration leads to the arousal of a drive whose primary goal is that of harming some person or object  particularly the perceived cause of frustration  frustration = anything that prevents us from reaching goals we are seeking  suggested that frustration is the strongest, or perhaps the only, cause of aggression.  Social psychologists now realize that this theory is misleading, but it still enjoys widespread acceptance outside our field Modern theories of aggression o do not focus on a single factor (instincts, drives, and frustration) as the primary cause of aggression.  Rather, they draw on advances in many areas of psychology in order to gain added insight into the factors that play a role in the occurrence of such behaviour o social learning perspective (theory)  Human beings are not born with a large array of aggressive responses at their disposal  Rather, they must acquire these in the much the same way that they acquire other complex forms of social behaviour  = through direct experience or by observing the behaviour of others  Eg. live persons or characters on television, in movies, or even in video games who behave aggressively  depending on their past experience and the cultures in which they live, individuals learn o (1) various ways of seeking to harm others, 





o (2) which people or groups are appropriate targets for aggression, o (3) what actions by others justify retaliation or vengeance on their part, o & (4) what situations or contexts are ones in which aggression is permitted or even approved.  social learning perspective suggests that whether a specific person will aggress in a given situation depends on many factors,  including the person’s past experience,  the current rewards associated with past or present aggression,  and attitudes and values that shape this person’s thoughts concerning the appropriateness and potential effects of such behaviour. o general aggression model (GAM)  a chain of events that may ultimately lead to overt aggression can be initiated by two major types of input variables:  (1) factors relating to the current situation (situational factors) o Variables falling into the first category include frustration, some kind of provocation from  another person (e.g., an insult), exposure to other people behaving aggressively (aggressive models, real or in the media),  and virtually anything that causes individuals to experience discomfort  everything from uncomfortably high temperatures to  physical pain or even disrespectful treatment  and (2) factors relating to the people involved (person factors). o Variables in the second category (individual differences across people) include  traits that predispose some individuals toward aggression (e.g., high irritability),  certain attitudes and beliefs about violence (e.g., believing that it is acceptable and appropriate),  a tendency to perceive hostile intentions in others’ behaviour,  and specific skills related to aggression (e.g., knowing how to fight or how to use various weapons).  these situational and individual (personal) variables lead to overt aggression through their impact on three basic processes:  arousal—they may increase physiological arousal or excitement;  affective states—they can generate hostile feelings and outward signs of these (e.g., angry facial expressions);  and cognitions— they can induce individuals to think hostile thoughts or can bring beliefs and attitudes about aggression to mind.

  





Depending on individuals’ interpretations (appraisals) of the current situation and restraining factors (e.g., the presence of police or the threatening nature of the intended target person), they then engage either in thoughtful action, which might involve restraining their anger, or impulsive action, which can lead to overt aggressive actions this theory has been expanded to explain why individuals who are exposed to high levels of aggression either directly, in the actions of others, or in films and video games—may tend to become increasingly aggressive themselves  Repeated exposure to such stimuli serves to strengthen knowledge structures related to aggression o beliefs, attitudes, schemas, and scripts relevant to aggression.  As these knowledge structures related to aggression grow stronger, it is easier for these to be activated by situational or person variables.  As a result, the people in question are truly “primed” for aggression More complex then earlier theories  because it fully reflects recent progress in the field  the growing understanding of the fact that what people think is crucial in determining in what they actually do very valuable in terms of helping us understand the many causes of various forms of aggression

Causes of aggression: personal, social, cultural and situational o often a response to something in the social world around us o frustration  why not getting what you want can sometimes lead to aggression  frustration = The way I feel when something—or someone—prevents me from getting what I want or expect to get in some situation  belief in frustrations important relationship to aggression stems from the frustration-aggression hypothesis  (1) Frustration always leads to some form of aggression,  and (2) Aggression always stems from frustration  these assertions are appealing but inaccurate  both portions of the frustration-aggression hypothesis assign far too much importance to frustration as a determinant of human aggression. o individuals do not always respond with aggression when frustrated o they show many different reactions, ranging from sadness, despair, and depression, to direct attempts to overcome the source of their frustration on the other.  In short, aggression is definitely not an automatic response to frustration.  not all aggression stems from frustration  frustration can serve as a powerful determinant of aggression under certain conditions—especially when it is viewed as illegitimate or unjustified

o direct provocation  when aggression (or even teasing) causes aggression  physical or verbal provocation from others is one of the strongest causes of human aggression  When we are on the receiving end of some form of provocation from others  criticism we consider unfair, sarcastic remarks, or physical assaults  we tend to reciprocate, returning as much aggression as we have received or perhaps even more, especially if we are certain that the other person meant to harm us.  What kind of provocation is strongest in pushing us to aggression?  Condescension = expressions of arrogance or disdain on the part of others o are very powerful  Harsh and unjustified criticism o Especially criticism that attacks us rather than our behaviour o is a powerful form of provocation o most people find it very difficult to avoid getting angry and retaliating in some manner, either immediately or later on  teasing o people often respond with annoyance o teasing = provoking statements that call attention to an individual’s flaws and imperfections, but can be, at the same time, somewhat playful in nature o Teasing can range from mild, humorous remarks (e.g., “Hey —you look you’re having a bad hair day”) through nicknames or comments that truly seem designed to hurt. o Research findings indicate that the more individuals attribute teasing to hostile motives the more likely hey are to respond aggressively  Hostile motives = a desire to embarrass or annoy them  One especially unfortunate effect of one person provoking another is that often, the recipient responds in kind, and a spiral in which aggression breeds aggression develops.  The result is that verbal provocations can quickly escalate into physical aggression in which one or both parties are hurt.  Research findings indicate too that actions by others that threaten our status or public image are important triggers of aggression  Example: participants (male and female college students) were asked to describe the primary reason why they had performed their most recent act of direct aggression against another person.  A substantial proportion, 48.3% of men and 45.3% of women, described concerns about their status or reputation (threats to their self-identity) as the main cause of their aggression.  In sum, others’ actions, especially when they are interpreted as stemming from hostile motives from a desire to harm us are often a very powerful cause of aggression

o Emotions  when we are angry, one possible response is to express it overtly, by aggressing against another person, and especially the person who has aroused our anger  But all instances of aggression do not involve strong emotions or feelings.  people who have a grudge against someone sometimes wait for long periods of time before attempting to harm their enemies— until conditions are “right” for doing the most damage with the least risk to themselves  excitation transfer theory  Under some conditions, heightened arousal (regardless of its source) can enhance aggression in response to provocation, frustration, or other factors  competitive games, exercise, and even some types of music have been found to increase subsequent aggression  because physiological arousal tends to dissipate slowly over time, a portion of such arousal may persist as a person moves from one situation to another o reaction to the previous event may occur even if you are unaware of the residual arousal  such effects are especially likely to occur when the person recognizes the residual arousal but then wrongly attributes it to the events occurring right now o social causes of aggression  social exclusion is an unpleasant experience, and one most of us would prefer to avoid  Social exclusion = being excluded or rejected by others o Exclusion not only means that we do not enjoy the benefits of social relations with others, but it also reflects negatively on our self-image o seems to indicate that we have undesirable rather than desirable characteristics. o Aggressive people are often excluded from groups or rejected by others because they are aggressive.  Social exclusion is often a powerful emotional trigger of aggression possibly due to a drive to lash out, or revenge this harmful action by others o But research on an emotional basis of rejection as a trigger is inconclusive o As negative emotions do not appear to mediate the effects of rejection on aggression  Theories suggest that rejection by others initiates a hostile cognitive mindset o as it activates cognitive structures in our minds that lead us to perceive ambiguous or neutral actions by others as hostile in nature, and to perceive aggression as common in social interactions and as an appropriate kind of reaction o Evolutionary theory suggests that a hostile cognitive mindset or bias might follow from exclusion.

Historically human beings needed others and cooperation with them to survive.  Therefore, being excluded from the group was a very serious and threatening matter.  This suggests that exclusion by others would be interpreted as a very hostile action. o Overall, the results of this research indicate that social exclusion does indeed operate through the generation of a hostile cognitive mindset or bias  Therefore, the cognitive effects it produces rather than the emotional ones that are most strongly responsible for the fact that excluded people do often become highly aggressive o Media violence  Does exposure to media violence increase aggression among children and adults  The subject of hundreds of studies  Results concluded that these effects are real, lasting, and substantial o exposure to media violence is indeed one factor contributing to high levels of violence in countries where such materials are viewed by large numbers of people o such materials significantly increase the likelihood of aggressive behaviour by people exposed to them. o Such exposure has both short-term and cumulative longterm effects on aggression. o The magnitude of these effects is large  Links between media violence and domestic partner assault, robbery, gang activity, and mass shootings have been obtained  The more violent films or television programs participants watched as children, the higher their levels of aggression as teenagers or adults o for instance, the higher the likelihood that they have been arrested for violent crimes. o Such findings have been replicated in many different countries—Australia, Finland, Israel, Poland, and South Africa  Therefore, not culturally limited o Thus, they appear to hold across different cultural settings. Further, such effects are not restricted only to actual programs or films: They appear to be produced by violence in news programs, by violent lyrics in popular music, and by violent video games  Example: Bandura experiment with Bobo doll  Made video of man being violent with bobo doll hitting nose, hitting with mallet, ect  Showed it to kids (school age)  Kids left with doll and watched over camera  Kids enact what they watched the man do on the video  Effect of violent video games 







the subject of intense study, because these games are very popular, and are played (often for hours each day) by millions of people all over the world. o meta-analysis that examined the findings of all available well-conducted studies on the effects of aggressive video games o found that playing such games consistently increases aggressive cognitions (thoughts related to harming others), aggressive affect (feelings of hostility, anger, and revenge), and subsequent aggressive behaviour o playing aggressive video games reduces empathy for others and the tendency to engage in prosocial behaviour. o Such effects occur in Eastern (i.e., Asian) countries as well as Western ones (Europe, North America), and appear to generate long-term effects—relatively long-lasting increases in aggressive cognitions, affect, and overt behaviour. o effects are found in short-term laboratory studies as well as long-term longitudinal studies that follow the same participants for months or years offer the following somewhat unsettling conclusion: “Video games are neither inherently good nor inherently bad. But people learn. And content matters.” When the content being learned is aggressive, it has su...