Chapter 2 Part 2 Learning Guide PDF

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Learning Guide: Chapter Two Part 2 - Theories of Cognitive Development Below you will find study questions and graphic organizers to help you organize the information for Chapter 2. Watch the podcasts and read the indicated sections of your text, especially the “Suggestions for Teaching” sections. In “Suggestions for Teaching” (and in the videos), you will see how these concepts can be applied to an actual classroom (and to the classroom scenario questions you will encounter on the exam). To jump to specific sections or pages, you may type the page number into the “search this course” function or click on “chapter contents,” which is in the top left once you click into the textbook.

Additional Definitions Create digital flashcards in MindTap or create your own with definitions for these terms:

● Seriation-Being able to put things into some logical order. Ex: Smallest to Largest.

● scientific conceptsDevelop in the process of acquiring a system of knowledge that a child receives during instruction.

● IrreversibilityStage in early childhood development in which a child falsely believes that actions cannot be reversed or undone (young children cannot mentally pour the water from the tall, thin glass back into the short one), thereby proving to themselves that the glasses contain the same

● spontaneous conceptsFormed during a child’s practical activity through direct interaction with other people in everyday life.

● empirical learningNoticing one thing is similar and saying it’s always similar like sparks are with fire so sparks always make fire. ● theoretical learningScientific learningsparks will not make a fire if there’s no oxygen and fuel.

amount of water. 1. Read Section 2-2a (p. 38-40), Focusing on the basic principles of Piaget’s theory. Explain the following terms in your own words:

a. cognitive organization- Combine processes into coherent, logically interrelated systems- tendency to coherently systemize and combine processes into general systems. Our brains do not like things scattered all over the place and we tend to classify things.

b. Adaptations- The tendency to adjust to the environment. Process of creating a good fit between one’s conception of reality and one’s experiences. Taking the new information and balancing it out so that you can have equilibration again. There are 2 different ways we can do this: Assimilation - interpreting an experience by fitting it into an existing scheme (taking the letter that does not fit your filing system and putting it into the group that matches the closest) or Accomodation - interpreting an experience by changing an existing scheme to incorporate the experience (make a whole new filing category)

c. Schemes- Basis for understanding and adapting to the world in which you live Organized pattern of behavior or thought. Like outside edges of a jigsaw puzzle. The framework begins to develop. This is how we think about things, the filing cabinet in our minds. It’s how we organize particular behaviors and particular thoughts into general concepts and skills.

d. Equilibration- When you organize your schemes to achieve the best possible adaptation for your environment - Tendency to organize schemes to allow better understanding of experiences. We like to have all of our files filed into our filing cabinet somewhere. We like to have things in balance.

e. Disequilibrium- When people encounter something that is inconsistent with or contradicts what they already know or believe. When there’s a discrepancy between what we believe and new information that comes in. Example, I’ve been filing all my mail into certain categories and then I get a letter from someone that does not fit into my categories. I have to adapt and change things around. f. Learning- Occurs when people create new ideas, or knowledge (rules and hypotheses that explain things), from existing information (e.g., facts, concepts, and procedures) -Using information can mean experimenting, questioning, reflecting, discovering, inventing, and discussing.

2. Read Section 2-2b (p. 40-45), focusing on Piaget’s 4 Stages of Cognitive Development. Explain Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development. Include distinguishing characteristics such as object permanence, egocentrism, conservation, and centration. Stage Ages Explanation in your own words, including relevant cognitive

milestones

Birth-2 Yrs.

They develop schemes primarily through sense and motor activities. Recognizes performance of objects not seen. Often referred to as habits or reflexes. -

Sensorimotor (p. 41)

They imitate the behavior of animals, and most important, they imitate even when the model is no longer present (this is called deferred imitation).

Object permanence: Occurs between the 4th and 8th month. If there is an object that is there, and then it is gone, they remember that it was there. Logical thought is not evident at this stage. Centers on mastery of symbols (such as words), which permits them to benefit much more from past experiences. Gradually acquires ability to concerve and decenter, but not capable of operations. Schemes in this stage are often referred to as concepts or categories. 2-7 Yrs. Egocentrism: The way I think of something is the only way to think about something. It does not mean selfish or conceited.

Conservation: Matter is neither created nor destroyed, but simply changes shape or form or position. Children understand that if more than one thing changes, it may still be the same. Ex: pouring a cup of water into a small bowl that it fills almost to the top and then pouring that same cup into a large pan where it looks like there is barely any water in the pan. By about age 7, they can begin to understand that there is more than one measurement that matters, and it is still the same amount of water.

Preoperational (p.41-42)

Centration: the strong tendency to focus attention on only one characteristic of an object or aspect of a problem or event at a time.

7-11 Yrs. Concrete operational (p.42-43)

Capable of operations, but solves problems by generalizing from concrete experiences. Struggle with abstractions. Kids this age do not really understand puns. Schemes in this age group are often referred to as strategic or planful behaviors.

Adolescent Egocentrism: The inability to differentiate between the world as the adolescent thinks it should be and the world as it actually is.

Formal operational (p.43-44)

11+ Yrs.

Able to deal with abstractions, form hypotheses, solve problems systematically, and engage in mental manipulation.

3. Read “Suggestions for Teaching” on pages 48-50. You may add additional notes here: Younger Preschool Children - Provide free play and experimentation to encourage autonomy but give guidance to reduce doubt. No shaming. Older Preschool Children - Encourage activities that encourage initiative and accomplishment, avoid guilt when they ask questions. Review prior learning to help students connect new concepts to existing schemes. Elementary and Middle School kids - Help them experience industry by presenting tasks that they can complete successfully. Use manipulatives for hands on practice. High School Kids - Help them develop a sense who they are and how they fit into adult society. Recognize them as individuals by praising both their accomplishments and their potential, create a classroom environment that fosters an identity achievement status, help them clarify their ideas about gender roles by having class discussions (e.g., in social science courses) about changes in attitudes regarding masculinity, femininity, and family responsibilities, and use technology to help adolescents define and develop their political values.

4. Read Section 2-2c (p. 45-46), focusing on the role of social interaction and instruction in cognitive development according to Piaget. Read Section 2-3a and 2-3b (p. 51-54), focusing on the role of social interaction and instruction in cognitive development according to Vygotsky. Compare and contrast Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s beliefs concerning these roles: Theorist

Role of Social Interaction

Role of Instruction

Piaget (Sec 2-2c)

Social interaction is more strongly influenced by peers. The only role of social interaction is to move past egocentrism. Is about developing independently and interaction with the physical environment

May help the development of new schemes, but formal instruction does not have a significant impact on learning.

Very focused on cultural

Formal instruction is important and replaces spontaneous concepts (empirical learning - noticing one thing is similar and saying it’s always similar like sparks are with fire so sparks always make fire) with scientific concepts (theoretical learning -scientific - sparks will not make a fire if there’s no oxygen and fuel). Zone of Proximal Development.

Vygotsky (Sec 23a & Sec 2-3b)

and social interaction s. We solve problems based on how our culture has historically solved problems. The psychologi cal tools we have within our

culture, cognitive devices, procedure s, the ways of doing things, can change a thought process. Social interaction is Very focused on cultural and social interactions. We solve problems based on how our culture has historically solved problems. The psychological tools we have within our culture, cognitive devices, procedures, the ways of doing things, can change a thought process. Social interaction is

extremely important and we learn from our more intellectually advanced peers, older children and adults who can teach us.

5. Read Section 2-3c (p. 54-55), focusing on scaffolding and the Zone of Proximal Development. Explain both concepts: a. Scaffolding: We support learning during the early phases, and as students become more able to work independently, the support can be withdrawn. Ex. The teacher breaks a large project down into smaller pieces and provides an outline to students. This is done by providing examples to illustrate the content students are learning.

b. ZPD: Area in which a child who can’t quite do it on their own, can do it if they’re given a little bit of help. This is where we want kids to be when we’re teaching them. We want to give them something that is a little difficult for them but not impossible if we’re helping them. We learn best when instruction is pitched just above the lower level of our zone of proximal development.

6. Read Sections 2-4a and 2-4b (p. 56-58). Give two examples of how technology can be applied to Piaget and Vygotsky’s theories: Theorist

Example 1

Piaget

Microworlds, Microcompu ter Based Laboratories (MBL) Microworlds, Microcomputer Based Laboratories (MBL) Students learning things on their own, learning independently, being provided a small world of environment in which they can what we expect them to learn somewhat spontaneously.

Example 2 Collaboration with other students on the internet.

Vygotsky

Cognitive apprenticeship with technology (telementoring)You have a master who knows what they’re doing and you have an apprentice who is learning from the master. Difference is that cognitive = thinking. So we learn to think by watching someone who is a master at thinking.

Interaction with peers as well as with experts on the web (multiuser virtual environments).

7. Read Section 2-5a (p. 59-60) and Review table 2-3 (p. 60), focusing on Piaget’s morality of constraint and morality of cooperation. Contrast morality of constraint (younger children) with morality of cooperation (adults, older children): Morality of Constraint - moral thinking of children up to the age of ten or so. The first four differences call attention to the tendency for children below the age of ten or so to think of rules as sacred pronouncements handed down by external authority.) Holds single, absolute moral perspective (behavior is right or wrong). Believes rules are unchangeable. Determines extent of guilt by amount of damage. Defines moral wrongness in terms of what is forbidden or punished. Believes punishment should stress atonement and does not need to “fit the crime.” Believes peer aggression should be punished by an external authority. Believes children should obey rules because they are established by those in authority. Morality of Cooperation - moral thinking of children eleven or older. The last three differences call attention to the tendency for children above the age of ten or so to see rules as mutual agreements among equals.) Is aware of different viewpoints regarding rules. Believes rules are flexible. Considers the wrongdoers’ intentions when evaluating guilt. Defines moral wrongness in terms of violation of spirit of cooperation. Believes punishment should involve either restitution or suffering the same fate as one’s victim. Believes peer aggression should be punished by retaliatory behavior on the part of the victim. Believes children should obey rules because of mutual concerns for rights of others

8. Read Section 2-5b (p. 60-62) and Review table 2-4 (p. 61), focusing on Kohlberg’s 6 stages of moral reasoning, including the concepts of pre-conventional, conventional, and postconventional. Identify the characteristics of each stage below:. Pre-conventional: (all about me) 1. PunishmentObedience orientation: The physical consequences of an action determine goodness or badness. Those in authority have superior power and should be obeyed. Punishment should be

Conventional: (all about rules) 3. Good boy-Nice girl orientation: The right action is one that would be carried out by someone whose behavior is likely to please or impress others

Post-conventional: (all about others) 5. Social Contract orientation: Rules needed to maintain the social order should be based not on blind obedience to authority but on mutual agreement. At the same time, the rights of the individual should be protected

avoided by staying out of trouble. - Reward and punishment.

4. Law and Order orientation: 6. Universal Ethical Principle orientation:

2. Instrumental Relativist orientation: An action is judged to be right if it is instrumental in satisfying one’s own needs or involves an even exchange. Obeying rules should bring some sort of benefit in return

To maintain the social order, fixed rules must be established and obeyed. It is essential to respect authority

Moral decisions should be made in terms of self-chosen ethical principles. Once principles are chosen, they should be applied in consistent ways.

9. Important to know (p. 62): Macromoral issues are broad social issues such as civil rights, free speech, the women’s movement, and wilderness preservation. Micromoral issues concern personal interactions in everyday situations, such as courtesy, helpfulness, loyalty, dedication, and caring. Macromoral issues - broad social issues such as civil rights, free speech, the women’s movement, and wilderness preservation. Micromoral issues - concern personal interactions in everyday situations, such as courtesy, helpfulness, loyalty, dedication, and caring. 10. Read Section 2-5c (p. 63-64), focusing on Gilligan's View of Identity and Moral Development. In particular, focus on gender differences in how development occurs. What are these differences, according to Gilligan?

1. Adolescent females have a different primary concern. They care less about separation and independence and more about remaining loyal to others through expressions of caring, understanding, and sharing of experiences 2. Both males and females use both caring/helping/cooperation and justice/fairness/individual rights orientations to justify how they would resolve moral dilemmas. Second, there is a small tendency for females to favor a caring/helping, cooperation orientation.

11. Read Section 2-5e (p. 65-67), focusing on Character Development as an Educational Goal. Explain in your own words in the list below: 1. Intellectual character: refers to ways of thinking that direct and motivate what a person does when faced with a learning task and that often lead to a meaningful outcome. A learner with intellectual character is, for example, curious, open-minded, reflective, strategic, and skeptical.

2. Moral character: a disposition to do both what is good and what is right. The civil rights demonstrators of the 1960s, for example, knew their actions violated local laws but were convinced that to do so was both right and good because it would lead to equal rights for all people regardless of racial background

3. Civic character: the desire and willingness to use one’s knowledge and skills to become an engaged and responsible citizen. Some of the building blocks of civic character are a respect for freedom, equality, and rational thinking; understanding the importance of diversity and due process; and a willingness to participate in civic affairs. Expressions of civic character include serving on public boards and committees, doing volunteer work for charitable and social service organizations, attending city council meetings, working for candidates for public office, and running for public office.

4. Performance character: personal qualities that facilitate the achievement of one’s goals. Examples here include the willingness to persevere, especially in the face of obstacles, starting tasks in a timely manner, being able to recover from failure, being willing to take a stand or express a contrary point of view, having a positive outlook, and attending to detail.

12. Read “Suggestions for Teaching” on pages 69-70. You may add additional notes here:

1. Recognize that younger children respond to moral conflicts differently from older children. 2. Try to take the perspective of students, and stimulate their perspective-taking abilities. 3. Develop an awareness of moral issues by discussing a variety of real and hypothetical moral dilemmas and by using daily opportunities in the classroom to heighten moral awareness. (Moral education should be an integral part of the curriculum; it should not take place during a “moral education period.”) 4. Create a classroom atmosphere that will enhance open discussion. For example, arrange face-to-face groupings, be an accepting model, foster listening and communication skills, and encourage student-to-student interaction. a. Highlight the moral issue to be discussed b. Complicate the circumstances. c. Use personal and naturalistic examples. - ask them to put themselves in the position of the person being confronted with a moral dilemma

13. Read the Chapter 2 summary (p. 72-73) thoroughly. There is additional information from the chapter in the summary that you haven’t yet encountered. Please be sure to read ALL chapter summary information to support your learning! You may add additional notes here:...