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Lecture 9 notes- behaviour and motivation...

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KEY THEORISTS Burrhus Federic (B.F.) Skinner- pioneered operant conditioning, which is used in workplace behavioural modification techniques Abraham Maslow- Developed the hierarchy of needs, which was then used as a theory of workplace motivation Frederick Herzberg- Suggested that only some job characteristics motivate people in the work place, hygiene factors can only cause dissatisfaction John Stacey Adams- developed equity theory, which suggests that people are motivated by couraging their workplace rewards with others Victor Vroom- Developed expectancy theory, which suggests that people are motivated by actions which help them achieve their desire goals John Goldthorpe- Suggested that people had different predispositions, or orientations, to work, which influence the meaning and identity people derive from their work.

Motivation- the drive, will and desire that a person has to engage in a particular behaviour or perform a particular task Pyschological explanations for motivational differences: -

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Extrinsic rewards- A reward a person receives which is provided by somebody else. EG. Pay, working conditions, promotion Intrinsic rewards- a reward that a person senses for themselves, rather than it being provided by someone else. EG. Sense of achievement- Lawler (1973) believes to be more powerful motivator Social rewards- a reward that comes from the feeling of being part of a group/ team. Reward- in behaviourism, a positive response that is received for performing a particular behaviour Punishment- in behaviourism, a positive response that is received for performing a particular behaviour Coercion- behaviour that arises from being forced in some way into performing that behaviour- not genuine motivation

Taylor believed that workers had “Natural laziness”- inherently demotivated= piece rates used to motivate them Ford introduced the $5 a day, despite poor working conditions it motivated many job seekers to work in Ford’s factories Both Taylor/ Ford= coercive view on motivation based on the assumption of “homo economicus”people motivated by economic reasons alone. Tim Westergren’s ability to get employees working for free for over 2 years INTRINSIC MOTIVATION Lottery question- a question which asks whether people would give up work if they had enough money to live without having to work

Harpaz (1989) recorded- 68.8% UK and 93.4% Japan said they would continue to work in some form, even if they no longer needed pay= intrinsic motivation. -

Suggested that workers in caring and public-service occupations are motivated by intrinsic rewards= satisfaction, rewarding jobs Voluntary workers= pride and passion in job

MOTIVATION FROM SOCIAL FACTORS Sports teams- team spirit, sense of belonging Joking/ banter- inclusion. (Collinson 1988, Ackroyd and Crowdy, 1990) BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES AND MOTIVATION Behaviourism- an area of psychology which suggests that behaviour can be changed through the planned use of rewards and punishment. Known as Stimulus-response psychology Stimulus-response psychology- the underlying relationship of behaviourism, whereby a particular response, or behaviour, is the result of a particular stimulus- either a reward or punishment. In the workplace such stimuli might be the extrinsic motivator such as pay, may be a reward for working, as a bonus to encourage or a punishment by withholding bonuses/ firing a worker. PAVLOV AND CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Behaviour is said to be conditioned. Conditioning- a change in behaviour brought about using siulus-response techniques typical of behavioural psychology. Classical conditioning- a type of conditioning of a behaviour where a reward or punishment accompanies and reinforces every instance of the behaviour to be conditioned. Aversion therapy- a type of classical conditioning whereby a particular is continually accompanied by a punishment so as to discourage that behaviour. Pavlov’s dogs- dogs natural response is to salivate when faced with the stimulus of a bowl of food. Pavlov would ring a bell whenever food was present, after a while even when no food was present the dogs would salivate at the sound of the bell. Eventually the conditioned response became extinct. To maintain the conditioned behaviour, a continuous reinforcement of the association between the stimulus and response was needed- the bell had to be rung every time that the food appeared. Not often used in workplace due to; Punishments need to be immediate and happen every time a behaviour occurs. Punishments also correlate with anxiety and resentment towards managers lowering morale (Villere and Hartman, 1991;28) To motivate workers towards a particular behaviour, management need to continually supply rewards to avoid extinction of that behaviour (V&H suggest even just a smile from a boss) SKINNER AND OPERANT CONDITIONING Rewards cant be after every good move, yet regular intervals eg. Wage. Operant conditioning- a conditioning of behaviour which recognises that rewards and punishments do not need to be continuous, but can be scheduled in a way to still condition behaviour

Skinner experimented with animals in observation box- eg. Rat pressing leaver for reward. Reward didn’t need to be intermittent yet would learn after eg. Every 4 presses the reward would come. Found that variable rewards were more effective motivators= element of surprise/ unpredictability (eg. Number of presses changed) Skinner’s work applied in the workplace by Luthans and Kreitner (1985) as organisational behaviour modification (OB Mod)- the use of operant conditionings in a workplace setting. Schedules of reinforcement- A blend of fixed and variable reinforcements designed so as best to reinforce desired behaviours. Have differing effects on motivating employees into particular types of desire behaviours; -

Regular salary= fixed interval- only found to motivate turning up= bare minimum Variable rewards- eg. Bonus- higher success rate

Behaviourism- Sees people in simplistic, mechanistic terms

CONTENT THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Content theories- theories of motivation which suggests that the content of work should be designed so as best to meet the needs which motivate workers MASLOW’S HEIRARCHY OF NEEDS Theory that shows that individuals have a set of needs in hierarchical order, whereby people are motivated by the most immediate unsatisfied need. -

Models efficacy in the workplace= largely disputed= important to understand model, background and flaws Simplistic

Elements of the hierarchy; -

Physiological needs- basic physical needs for survival, such as food and water Safety needs- a need for safety, physical health and security Love and belongingness- social needs, such as being part of a group, interacting with others and a need for affection Esteem needs- a need for status, recognition, and self respect Self-actualisation- a form of ultimate self-fulfilment, the achievement of our ultimate potential and creativity and what we, according to maslow, are fitted for

Prepotency- one characteristic having dominance over another- must satisfy each level in turn -

Individuals are motivated differently Hierarchy integrates differing types of motivating factors within it s framework. EG. Extrinsic rewards, social rewards and intrinsic rewards Hierarchy shows individuals motivations are not fixed- dynamic and progress over time Background and experiences of a person may shape what needs are dominant for a person. EG. Unstable childhood= more need for belonging People do not necessarily start and work way from bottom- Eg. Average American already has physiological needs so start higher up= expect more Some people might even give everything up for the sake of their values

Critique and use of Maslow;

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Sometimes applied too simplistically Varying views on each category- eg. Self-actualisation differs for everyone Lacks empirical evidence

HERZBERG: MOTIVATORS AND HYGIENE FACTORS Motivating factors- for Herzberg, characteristics of a job which can bring about increases in the job satisfaction and motivation of workers. Largely intrinsic. Hygiene factors- for Herzberg, characteristics of a job which cannot bring about increases in job satisfaction and motivation of workers, but which can cause demotivation if they are not addressed sufficiently. Extrinsic factors, eg. Company policy, supervision, interpersonal relationships, working conditions, job security, pay. Herzberg and job enrichment For Herzberg, increased satisfaction comes from the design of work itself in a way that minimises hygiene factors and maximises motivators. This suggests a move away from job simplificationbreaking down a job into simple tasks, as with Taylorism/ Fordism. Horizontal loading- increasing the scope of a job by adding elements of work of a similar nature and at the same level of hierarchical responsibility Job rotation- where workers alternate between different tasks of a similar nature. Job enlargement- where more tasks are added to increase the challenge and variety of the job Vertical loading- where a job is enriched by adding tasks which would normally be associated with elements of responsibility linked to positions higher in an organisations hierarchy.

PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Process theories- Theories of motivation which suggest that motivation is a result of individual processes of perception, comparison, and calculation ADAMS-EQUITY THEORY Equity theory- A process theory of motivation which suggests that people are either motivated or demotivated depending on how they are rewarded in the workplace compared with others. Based on inputs and outcomes. Inputs- in equity theory, the efforts and contributions made by an individual to their work Outcomes- in equity theory, the rewards and results of a person’s inputs. Individual, subjective level of motivation compared to content theory due to: -

It is motivation that comes not from the total amount of a reward but from how fairly individuals feel that reward has been distributed Based on individual perceptions of fairness- what one person feels to be fair may be perceived as unfair by another.

Adams suggests number of reactions that individuals might have if they perceive and inequity between inputs and outcomes;

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Under-rewarded compared to others= feel anger, attempt to redress the balance by negotiation, decreasing level of effort or resistance Over-rewarded compared to others= guilt and work harder and (unlikely) may take pay cut.

Organisational justice- a concept that stresses the importance of the process as well as the outcome for the perceived fairness of a decision VROOM EXPECTANCY THEORY Expectancy theory- A process theory of motivation which suggests that people will be motivated into actions and behaviours that they can link with them achieving goals and rewards that they desire. 3 elements which form the calculation of what will motivate people towards a particular behaviour and away from other behaviours; (E)xpectancy- the belief that a particular effort or action will lead to a particular outcome (I)nstrumentality- the belief that that outcome will attract a particular reward (V)alence-the value that an individual attaches to that reward Motivational Force (MF)= V x I x E People will be motivated to perform efforts that they believe will be instrumental in them achieving goals and rewards that they value GOAL SETTING THEORY Goal setting theory- an approach that argues that motivation is influenced by the difficulty, specificity, and the feedback of reaching your goals. Goals must be SMART- (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time bound.) May result in “tunnel Vision”- only focus on goals and lose sight of wider objectives SOCIAL APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION Hughes (1951)- the work we do is a significant indication of our value and position within society Problems of the psychological approaches to motivation; -

It is difficult to find empirical evidence for many of these theories Can broad frameworks, eg. Maslow’s hierarchy, every appreciate the complex, individual nature of personalities Often when applied to work these complex theories are boiled down to a simplistic and narrow framework or equation Motivation theories tend to focus on just on aspect of the job- eg. Reward, satisfaction, rather than having an overall view on both the job and its like to the outside world.

WHY DO WE WORK -

Economic necessity Sense of identity in society Expected to

ORIRNTATIONS TO WORK

Goldthorpe (1968)- workers in a car factory, half workers did not seem to be deriving an intrinsic/ social satisfaction from work, half were not expressing dissatisfaction despite they disliked some aspects- workers saw work as a means to an end, had no desires. Orientation to work; A perspective which suggests that people have a predisposition to work that is influenced by our lives outside work and the meaning that we attach to work: -

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Instrumental orientation to work- suggests strong separation between working life and nonworking life. Bureaucratic orientation to work- suggests more of a loyalty towards an organisation. Meaning and social identity are carried into the outside world, eg. Promotion within organisation= marker of social status/ identity Solidaristic orientation to work- meaning carried into society but meaning derives from membership of a group rather than individual status = solidarity between workers. Loyalty and morale is to the group rather than the organisation itself....