Child Development Final Exam Study Guide PDF

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Child Development Final Exam Study Guide Chapters 9, 10, 12, 13, & Discipline Chapter 9: Cognitive & Language Development in Early Childhood Cognitive Development  Preoperational Stage:3-6 years of age  Piaget uses operational to refer to the logical systems of thought which emerge in middle childhood  Time when preschoolers are incapable of advance forms of reasoning (understanding that while horses are animals, not all animals are horses)  The Symbolic Function: end of second year of life  Symbolic function: the ability to use symbols to represent or stand for perceived objects and events  Takes several distinct forms: deferred imitation, symbolic or pretend play, mental images, and language  Deferred imitation: children observe the behavior of a model and imitate that behavior when the model is no longer present  Ex: after watching parents using eating utensils for several months, a toddler makes his first spontaneous attempts to use a spoon  Symbolic/pretend play: children pretend that an object is something other than what it really is  Ex: 18-month-old lifts an empty cup to his face, tips it as if to drink, licks his lips, and looks at his mother with a grin that indicates he knows he did not really drink  Transforms any situation into an unlimited world of make-believe for preschoolers  Shifting Context: performing routine behaviors outside of their typical setting  Ex: lacey and her friends shifting context by transforming the abandoned car into a kitchen and dining room  Substituting Objects: children often substitute one object for another in their pretend play  During third year children are able to transform virtually any object into props needed for their pretend play  Become progressively less dependent on realistic objects  Ex: lacey and her friends have no problem substituting an assortment of junk for the utensils and food items necessary for their play  Substituting Other Agents for Oneself: late in second year, children begin to use dolls in pretend play, but only as passive agents  By beginning of third year, most children use dolls as active agents, pretending that dolls initiate and sustain their own behavior as in talking, running, or playing with other dolls  Sequencing & Socialization of Pretend Episodes:  Ex: 2-year old’s hair combing may expand into the 4-year-old’s sequenced grooming: washing, putting on make-up, combing hair, & dressing  Conventional roles are also developed~police officer is supposed to catch the crooks  Mental images: internal representations of external objects or events  Mental images free children form here and now; enabling them to think about objects even when the objects are not physically there  The Advent of Preconcepts  Centration: preschool-age children tend to focus their attention on minute and often inconsequential aspects of their experience  Ex: child remember nothing about his babysitter other than her bright colored earrings  These collections of images merge into preconcepts: disorganized, illogical, representations of the child’s experiences  Transductive Reasoning: Thinking With Preconcepts  The disorganized and illogical nature of preconcepts severely limits the quality of preschool-age children’s reasoning and problem solving  Induction: we derive general principles from particular examples  Ex: 8-year old boy observes that his teacher favorites girls, so boy induces that girls are teacher’s pets

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Deduction: we use general principles to predict particular outcomes Ex: same child could use his general principle to deduce that when he enters his next grade, his new teacher will be likely to favor girls  Transduction: reasoning with unsystematic collections of images which constitute their preconcepts  Ex: lacey believed that Little Red Riding Hood took the fine red hat from the wolf because he had been “so bad.”~logic is transductive: private and meaningful only within her preconceptual understanding of the story  Egocentrism  Egocentrism: child’s inability to conceptualize the perspective of other individuals; not selfish  Three-mountain problem: children between 4 and 12 years of age were shown a 3-dimensional model of a mountain scene and were asked what they saw. Then, a doll was placed somewhere else looking at the mountains~children under age of 8 explained the doll’s view as the same as theirs  Irreversibility: notion that preschoolers cannot mentally reverse their transductive sequences of thought  Ex: ex: when a 3-year old girl who has a sister is asked if she has a sister, she obvs answers yes. If she is then asked if her sister has a sister she will say no~showing inability to reverse the concept of the relationship Reasoning in Content Domains  Classification: the tendency to group objects on the basis of particular sets of characteristics  Stage 1: 5 & younger have no overall plan for sorting  Stage 2: 6-8 years sorted in a more organized way  Stage 3: later childhood to adolescence, children understood the relationship the rule of class inclusion  Quantitative Reasoning: ability to estimate the amount of things and changes in the amounts of things in terms of number, size, weight, volume, speed, time, and distance  Ex: 3-year old tries to throw a ball, he must try to estimate how much force is needed to project the ball a certain distance  Conservation: the notion that certain attributes of objects and events may remain unchanged, despite transformations or changes in other attributes  Preschoolers have trouble with conservation  1:1 correspondence: understanding that a row of 6 white beans spread apart and a row of 6 black beans close together are the same amount even though they appear different sizes  conservation of number is not achieved until the stage of concrete operations (7-8)  Concepts of Counting  One-to-one principle: one and only one distinctive number name mist be assigned to each item in the array; no number should be counted more than once and no number used more than once  Stable-order principle: number names must be assigned in a stable, repeatable order  Cardinal principle: final number in counting sequence gives the total number of items in the array  Abstraction principle: virtually anything can be counted: tangibles such as objects and events, and intangibles such as ideas, values, or emotions~not a problem for young children  Order-irrelevance principle: the order in which objects are counted is irrelevant~if a child were counting the stuffed animals in her room, the bear could be counted first or second or third, as long as it eventually is assigned a number  Children accurately can count to 20-30 by first grade  Appearance & Reality  Distinguishing appearance and reality: refers to the fact that adults generally sense that appearances do not always reflect reality: that people do not necessarily mean what they say, intend that they do, or feel emotions implied by the look on their face  Hard for children to differentiate  Ex: child being a scared of a mask and then not accepting that it was only a person making believe even once the mask is off Information Processing

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Refers to children’s use of attention and memory to gain and retain information about their environment and their use of that information to solve problems Attention: teachers often spend more time trying to gains attention than on their actual activity Remembering: preschool only have a limited capacity to process information for long-term memory Toddlers and preschoolers do better when asked to remember objects and events rather that random numbers Strategies: purposeful efforts to facilitate memory (used by older children more than younger) Metacognition: conceptualizing their own cognitive processes “knowing what they do and do not know” Theory of Mind: used to explain and predict human behavior ex: when one child wants to make friends with a peer, it helps that child to know how the potential friends feel about her mindreading: cognitive process by which we attribute desires and beliefs to other individuals in order to explain and predict their behavior deception: ability to generate false beliefs in other individuals

Language Development  toward end of second year children have mastered most of major components of language  during preschool children’s vocabulary expands  The Growth of Vocabulary  Preschool children learn 9 words per day  New vocabulary grows as children understand relationships among objects and events in their experience  Learning the Rules of Grammar  Grammar: the system of rules that strictures how to combine words into meaningful sentences  Grammatical morphemes: inflections such as –ing, -ed, and –s which modify nouns, verbs, and adjectives  Over-regularize: to overuse a certain grammatical application  Ex: child may –ed to all verbs both regular and irregular after just learning the –ed rule  Communicating with Others  Egocentric speech: language that fails to consider the viewpoint of the listener  Monologue: children talk to themselves, seemingly oblivious to anyone around them  Collective monologue: conversation-like turn-taking between egocentric speakers, with little or no transfer of meaning  Most preschoolers master the basic rules of conversation  Private Speech: speech with no apparent communicative purpose  Ex: preschoolers muffle softly to themselves only in the privacy of their rooms  Inner speech: thinking in words and sentences  Language delay: one of the leading causes are from a disorder of the inner ear Chapter 10: Social & Emotional Development in Early Childhood  Personality: child’s unique pattern of relating socially and emotionally to other human beings Promoting Social Competence:  Social Competence: ability to establish and maintain satisfying social interaction and relationships with peers and adults  A child’s social competence can greatly affect how they are accepted socially and how successful they become later on in life Social Play  Play is one of the most distinguishing aspects of childhood  Provides children with the opportunity to experiment with their own development  Emphasizes process, not product  Unoccupied behavior: child is not involved in play and does not interact with other children or others

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Onlooker behavior: child observes the play of other children with obvious interest but makes no effort to become involved in any way Solitary play: child plays independently with toys that are unlike those played with by other children. There is no social contact or apparent interest in what other children are doing Parallel play: the child plays beside other children with toys that are similar to those used by those children, there is no social contact with other children nor any effort to coordinate play Associative play: the child plays with other children, sharing materials and conversing, but there no consistent theme to the play or division of roles Cooperative play: the child plays with other children in an organized manner with roles differentiated to accomplish some goal or to act out some agreed upon play theme Social Pretend Play End of second year: toddlers begin to pretend an object is something that it’s not Ex: Making believe a stick is a gun Social pretend play: children acting out roles and themes associated with stories, television cartoon shows, or common family events (seen by age 3) Declines by 6-7 when games with rules begin to dominate Socio-dramatic play: requires that children learn to negotiate and communicate about the roles, objects, settings, and actions that will be employed in any given “pretend engagement” Failure to negotiate will undermine quality of social pretense Ex: if one player pretends that a stick is a gun, and another player pretends that the same stick is a magic wand, conflict is inevitable There is a certain language of social pretend play Promoting Social Pretense Parents should encourage social pretend play by providing materials, props, and a safe place to “hide” from adults

Relating to Peers  Social Preference  Some children are popular, while others are rejected  Sociometric procedure: individual children are asked to nominate three children they most like to play with and three that they least like to play with  Social statues subgroups: how children are classified by preferences  Popular: clearly more liked than disliked  Rejected: clearly disliked more liked  Neglected: neither liked or disliked  Controversial: liked by some, disliked by others  Average: children who do not fall neatly into one of these subgroups  Friendships: enduring close, mutual relationship between two individuals, expressed by a tendency to spend a disproportionate amount of play time together  Involves reciprocity: idea that relationship is mutual  Stable friendships are made in preschool  Preschoolers are drawn to people similar to themselves  Provides opportunity for the development of social skills and contributes to long-term adjustment  Conflicts: any situation where children are opposing each other  Occurs when resources are limited for preschool children  Center 2 issues: control of objects & social influence  promote social & cognitive development  The Development of Aggression  Aggression: purposeful efforts to inflict pain or injury on another child  Proactive aggression: child’s unprovoked, voluntary efforts to cause harm to selected victims  Ex: child approaches another child and hits the child for no apparent reason. On another occasion, the same child forcefully rips a toy form another child’s grasp and runs away with it~agressor acted intentionally & without provocation to cause harm to another child

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Reactive aggression: child is provoked by the behavior an instigator/aggressor and child responds defensively 3 types of aggression in children: instrumental, bullying, relational Instrumental aggression: object-oriented struggles between children over possession, territory, and privilege Ex: grabbing a toy from another child Bullying/hostile aggression: person-oriented acts aimed at forcefully gaining social control over another child May involve threatening by gesture or word, or actually striking a child to persuade or intimidate Relational aggression: behavior that is designed to inflict harm by undermining relations with peers Excluding another child from a playgroup “you can’t play with us” “I’m not gonna be your friend anymore” Biological Theories of Childhood Aggression Konrad Lorenz~humans are instinctually aggressive Phallic stage: children’s destructive impulses are directed increasingly toward the same-sex parent, who is perceived as a rival for the affection of the opposite-sex parent Freud believes that children’s hostile impulses must be released for healthy psychological adjustment Sublimate: children may channel their aggression into socially acceptable forms such as pounding clay Psychoanalytic theory: Caregivers should be tolerant of children’s aggression and that aggressive impulses need to be vented Parents should not “roll with your child’s punches” Social Learning Theory of Aggression 2 perspectives on child aggression: observational theory & coercion theory observation theory: children acquire aggressive responses by observing the aggressive behavior of models and produce aggressive responses coercion theory: one act causes another chains of aversive events: one child’s aggression triggers retaliation by the victim & then the attacker retaliates & so on reinforcement trap: when mom says “clean you room” and child throws a tantrum so mom says “ok don’t clean your room but cut that out” and the child stops the aggression child’s aggression is reinforced when the mother takes back her original command her submissive giving in is reinforced when it temporarily ends his aggression conversely, if mom spanked son, her aggression is reinforced when he stops, but models aggression that encourages him to act with aggression in future parents who rely on physical punishment are training their child to be aggressive and use physical punishment in the future Dominance Dominance hierarchy: systematic ordering of power relationships from most to least powerful member minimizes aggression by allowing each member of the group to anticipate the outcome of potential aggressive acts~fighting isn’t necessary bc they already know the winner Promoting Social Competence 2 major challenges for parents: establishing a secure attachment relationship in infancy and early childhood & developing a positive approach to socialization and discipline of their children Attachment & Social Competence attachment theory says that children’s social development depends on the quality of their relationships with their parents attachment relationships between preschool children and their parents change for 2 reasons: advances in language allow parent and child to communicate at greater distances (decreases need for close proximity) & internal working models internal working models: mental representations of the attachment relationship; allow children to feel secure at they explore farther and farther from the attachment figure

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the result is a new phase called goal-corrected partnership: attachment based more on emotional closeness rather that physical closeness  Childrearing and Social Competence  Authoritarian: parents assert great power over their children  Set strict limits with no negotiation  Indulgent-permissive: parents very accepting of their child’s impulses  Avoid setting rules  Little authority over behavior  Authoritative: parents have expectations for child’s behavior  Enforce rules but children have some say  Both communicate opinions openly  Neglectful: parents are uninvolved in their children’s lives and consider parenting a burden  Emotionally distance themselves from their children and minimize the time and effort devoted to childcare  Different parenting styles have predictable effects on social lives of children  Parental Coaching, Managing, & Monitoring  Parents who care will go extra step to manage child’s social environment  Ex: choice of neighborhood, planning playdates, monitoring child’s play  Mothers play role of social planner Prosocial Behavior  Prosocial behavior: behavior that shows concern for the welfare of others~helping, caring, sharing, rescuing, protecting  Shown by end of second year  Ex: at 2 years, mom is sick and child will say “I’ll get you my teddy bear”  Parents should encourage prosocial response~taking care of sibling Development of Gender Roles  Gender identity: ability to classify oneself and other by sex (by age 3)  Girls identify with the label “girl” by age 2, boys are a year later  Gender constancy: gender does not change regardless of how one behaves or what clothes one wears  Gender roles: behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs that a particular culture considers appropriate for males and females  Psychoanalytic perspective: Freud’s idea that pre-school age children develop intense sexual love for the opposite-sex parents and when this sexual desire is not fulfilled the child is overwhelmed by anxiety  Social Learning Perspective: children learn gender roles just as they learn any other behavior~by observing same-sex peers and imitating what they see  Cognitive Developmental Perspective: children are active agents in the learning of gender roles~children value those experiences that are perceived as sex-appropriate  Gender Schema Theory: cognitive structure where the child searches for gender-related information from the environment  Ex: on the first day of preschool, child will search for activities that he sees boys doing  A “guide” for children to understand gender roles  Parental Influence on Gender Role Learning  Parents tend to be more supportive when child is performing same-sex behavior  Ex: boys playing with blocks, girls playing with dolls  Fathers look down on cross-sex play more than mothers  Learning Gender Roles in the Same-Sex Group  Children tend to play with same sex when given the option  Gender segregation Emotional Development  Send...