Ed Psych Exam 2 - Lecture notes 1-8 PDF

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UW-Madison Educational Psychology 320...

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Lecture 10/16- Motor Development in Infancy General Sequence of Motor Development ● Gross Motor Development- actions that help children get around in environment (ex. walking) ● Fine Motor Development- control over small movements (ex. grasping) ● Various stages are determined by internal and external factors ● Motor development = builds upon skills ○ Ex. Tummy time → pulling on stomach → crawling ○ Delay in gaining may not delay the development of other things Motor Skills as Dynamic Systems ● Increasingly complex system of actions with each skill ● Four factors in each new skill: ○ Central nervous system development ○ Body’s movement capacity ○ Child’s goals ○ Environmental supports Cultural Variations in Motor Development ● Home environment and infant rearing practices affect motor development ○ Some cultures discourage rapid motor progress ○ Kenya and Jamaica teach early motor skills ○ Western parents consider crawling and tummy time essential, but not all cultures do Bowel and Bladder Control ● Toilet training is best delayed until the months following the second birthday ● Effective training techniques include… ○ Establishing regular potty routines ○ Using gentle encouragement ○ Praising children for their efforts “Reaching” Milestones ● Newborn → pre reaching (“swiping”) ● 3-4 months → reaching with ulnar grasp (able to modify grasp to object) ● 4-5 months → transfer object from one hand to another ● 9 months → pincer grasp (use of thumb and index finger to pick up objects) Development in Vision ● Brain development helps infants reach adult levels of vision skills ○ 2-4 months → focus and color vision ○ 6 months → acuity, scanning, and tracking ○ 6-7 months → depth perception

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Gestalt’s principles: form, depth, and motion Advances in technology → eye tracking

Development in Hearing ● 4-7 months → musical phrasing ● 6-8 months → “screen out” sounds from non-native languages ● 7-9 months → divide the speech stream into word like units ● 10 months → can detect words that start with weak syllables ● Perceptual Narrowing Effect- perceptual sensitivity becomes increasingly attuned with age ○ In study: ■ Baby looked at unfamiliar object much longer than familiar object (6 months) ■ 9 month old looked at familiar object much longer, and can recognize subtle differences ■ By 9 months → human infants reach the same perceptual narrowing ability as adults ● Intermodal Perception- simultaneous input from more than one sensory system ○ Infants can detect a modal sensory property even as newborns ○ Abilities develop rapidly in first year ○ Facilitates perception of physical world and understanding of the social world Lecture 10/18- Piaget (Cognitive Development) Piaget is a constructivist because we build our own knowledge, which is constantly changing, through objects John Piaget: Cognitive Development Theory ● Stage Theory → 4 stages between infancy and adolescence ○ Children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore the world ● Movement through stages occurs as… ○ Brain develops ○ Experiences expand Piaget’s Stages ● Sensorimotor: ○ Birth-2 years ○ “Think” through senses and solve problems using sensorimotor skills; discover object permanence ● Preoperational: ○ 2-7 years ○ Symbols and language; development of language and ability for make-believe ● Concrete Operational: ○ 7-11 years

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○ Logical reasoning, organization of objects as hierarchies; conservation task Formal Operational: ○ 11 year + ○ Abstract, systemic thinking; evaluate abstract problems

Piaget: How does change occur? ● Adaptation- individual able to go from one stage to the next ○ Assimilation- using existing schema to create new knowledge ○ Accommodation- existing schema needs to be changed because it is not working ○ Equilibrium- recalibration of concepts ■ Assimilation → equilibrium → new situation → disequilibrium → accommodation ● Organization- can be conceptual, physical objects, and/or social skills Piaget: Limitations and Critiques ● Cognitive changes of infancy are gradual and continuous rather than abrupt stages ● Various aspects of infant cognition change unevenly because of challenges posed by different types of task and infants varying experiences ● Underestimates ability ○ Infants DO engage with environment before 4 months ○ Problem solving occurs Lecture 10/23- Beyond Piaget Information Processing Theory ● Stimulus input (sense) → use attention to transfer to working short term memory → storage and retrieval to and from long term memory → information used to create a behavioral response ● Can go straight from sensory input to behavioral response (ex. Looking at the clock and knowing time) ● Controlled by central executive, which is the conscious part of the mind ● Attention: ○ During first year, infants pay attention to novel events ○ During toddlerhood, become capable of intentional behavior and sustained attention improves ● Memory: ○ Increases dramatically during infancy and toddlerhood ○ Move from highly context dependent to increasingly context free ○ Infantile Amnesia- most of us cannot recall events before age 3 ■ Immature brain development ■ Memory processing in infants is nonverbal ■ Lack focused on self image

Core Knowledge Theories ● Infants are born with core knowledge in several domains of thought: ○ Physical → hard vs. soft ○ Linguistic ○ Psychological → construct ○ Numerical → 10 vs. 100 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory → social contexts (other people) contribute to cognitive development ● Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)- tasks a child cannot do alone but can learn to do with help ○ Scaffolding promotes learning at all ages ○ Cultural variations affect mental strategies taught and learned ● Play: ○ Society provides children with opportunities to represent culturally meaningful activities in play ○ Adult participation leads to more complex play and teachers cultural skills Standardized Measures ● Bayley Scales of Infant Development ○ 1 month to 3.5 years ○ Bayley III → cognitive, language, social emotional, and adaptive behavior scale ● Stanford Binet IQ Test ○ Paper scaffolding, picture memory, response to pictures, block counting, etc. ○ For older children ● WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) ● IQ → average is 100 → cognitively normal individuals Lecture 10/25- Language Development in Infancy Theories ● Behaviorism (BF Skinner): ○ Operant conditioning → language is learned like everything else (reinforcement and punishment) ○ Stimulus response interaction; associating stimuli together ○ Cons: ■ Cannot account why humans but not other species acquire language ■ “Poverty of the stimulus” ■ Critical and sensitive periods? ● Nativism (Chomsky): ○ Leader of the cognitive revolution ○ Language capabilities are innate ○ Theorized a “language acquisition device” to explain children’s ability to acquire language so rapidly

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Existence of “universal grammar” Cons: ■ Difficulty specifying universal grammar and language acquisition device ■ Grammatical knowledge doesn’t appear innate ○ Support → decline of language learning abilities across time Interactionism: ○ Interactions between inner capabilities and environment ○ Perceptual Narrowing- sensitivity with age, becomes increasingly attuned to information most often encountered ■ At first, babies are sensitive to virtually all speech sounds ● BUT, by 6 months, they narrow their focus beginning with vowels

Sensitive Periods ● Deaf born 5 months old given a cochlear implant showed typical infant babbling and language development normally by 3 ● If hearing is not restored until after 2, children remain behind in language development ● If implantation occurs after 4, language delays are severe and persistent ● Learning to communicate: ○ Cooing → vowel practice, 2 months ○ Babbling → consonant practice, 6 months ○ Joint attention with caregiver → 8-12 months ○ First words → 12 months ○ Vocabulary explosion → 18-24 months ● Significant individual differences in rates of development Word Learning ● Comprehension (receptive language), precedes production (expressed language) ● Children are effective category learners, and understand that a new word can mean a new category or a single, individual item ○ Overextension- applying a word too widely ○ Underextension- applying a word too narrowly Becoming a Communicator ● Learning to talk means learning to communicate socially and physically ● Becoming a communicator: ○ Joint attention ○ Give and take → call and response element ○ Preverbal gestures ○ Highly effective for learning → draws attention/soothes Supporting Infant Language Development ● Infant directed speech: ○ High pitched, exaggerated sounds/songs

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○ Widespread ○ Highly effective for learning → draws attention/soothes Respond to coos and babbles → establish joint attention, play social games, engage in conversation

Brain Development ● Broca’s Area- supports grammatical processing, and language production ● Wernicke’s Area- plays role in comprehending word meaning Cultural differences → gender, temperament, environment (SES), language differences, and language delay Lecture 10/30- Basic Emotions in Infancy What are emotions? ● States of feelings that can affect behavior ● Often arise in response to social relations or external stimuli ● Can occur spontaneously ● Uncontrollable quality ● Subjective (private) ● Valence (positive-negative) ● Amplify motivational states ● Accompanied by physiological change ● Accompanied by thoughts about the emotion and its causes Two Theoretical Models ● Folk Psychology: ○ Stimulus → perception/interpretation → particular emotion experienced → specific pattern of arousal ● James-Lange Theory: ○ Stimulus → perception/interpretation → specific pattern of arousal → particular emotion experienced Emotional Development ● Emotions play powerful roles in social relationships, exploration of environment and discovery of self ○ Energize development ○ Become more varied, complex with age ● In children, facial expressions provide best cues to emotion ● “Pull string” study → even at young age, 3 months, they can show complex emotions First Appearance of Basic Emotions ● Happiness: ○ Smile → from birth, as reflex

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○ Social smile → 6 to 10 weeks ○ Lauge → 3 to 4 months Anger: ○ General distress → from birth ○ Anger → 4 to 6 months Sadness: ○ Distress to “still face” → 2 to 7 months Fear: ○ First fears → 6 to 12 months ○ Stranger anxiety → 8 to 12 months

Social, physical, and cultural differences seen in the way babies react to people and then can lead to different development in infants ● Nso people discourage emotional expression and encourage calmness ● Compared to Western parents who want to see emotion out of child ● Smaller percentage of Nso infants that displayed social smile than German infants Self Conscious Emotions → higher level of emotions → shame, embarrassment, envy, pride, guilt ● Emerge during middle of second year ● Need adult instruction about when to feel them ● Social referencing Psychological Stages- Erikson ● First year → basic trust versus mistrust ● Second year → autonomy versus shame and doubt Rothbart’s Model of Temperament- emotional, mental, and physical traits of a person ● Reactivity → activity level, attention span, fearful distress, irritable distress, and positive affect ● Self regulation → effortful control ○ Ex. marshmallow test Categories of Temperament ● Easy- 40% ● Difficult- 10% ● Slow to warm up- 15% ● Unclassified- 35% Stability of Temperament ● Temperament develops with age ○ Long term best achieved after age 3 ○ Development of prefrontal cortex rapid in early preschool years

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○ Extreme changes are unlikely Many factors influence temperament, including the biological systems on which temperament is based, effortful control, and parenting experiences

Genetics and Environment in Temperament ● Genetic influences: ○ Responsible for 50% of individual differences ○ Ethnicity, gender ● Environmental influence: ○ Cultural caregiving styles ○ Boys and girls treated differently ○ Parents emphasize sibling differences ● Goodness of Fit → genetic AND environment Lecture 11/1- Attachment Theory Bowlby’s Ethological Theory of Attachment ● Preattachment → birth-6 weeks ● Attachment in the making → 6-8 weeks ● Clear out attachment → 6/8 months- 1.5/2 years ○ Separation anxiety ○ Becomes clear which type of attachment Formation of reciprocal relationship → 1.5/2 years beyond Categories of Attachment ● Secure Attachment- use the parent as secure base, and actively seek contact with the parent when he/she returns (60%) ● Avoidant Attachment- seem unresponsive to parent, and slow to greet parent upon return (15%) ● Resistant Attachment- seek closeness to parent and distressed/angry when parent returns (10%) ● Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment- pattern reflects the greatest insecurity, and at reunion with parents, often confused with contradictory behaviors (15%) Caregiver and Attachment ● Early, consistent and sensitive caregiving = best ● Interactional Synchrony- interaction between various parties (mom and dad) somewhat on the same page; in synchronize fashion ● Infant and family characteristics moderate these factors How do we study attachment? ● Strange situation task ● Attachment Q sort: ○ Suitable for children 1-5 years of age

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Trained observer sorts 90 behaviors of parent-child interactions in the home

Who do infants attach to? ● Infants can form multiple attachments → from regular, quality time with someone ○ Parents, nannies, grandparents, etc. ● Siblings can be tricky → they are always there, but not there as caregivers Attachment and Later Development ● Secure attachments related to positive outcomes in preschool and middle school ● Caregiving Community may link infant attachment and later development ○ Sensitivity of caregiver specifically = most positive outcomes ● Effects of early attachment security are conditional (based on condition of caregiving continuity) and dependent upon quality of future relationships Emotional Self-Regulation ● Caregivers contribute to children’s self-regulation style ● Effortful control improves gradually, with the development of the cerebral cortex and the assistance of caregivers Self Awareness ● Beginning → at birth, infants have a sense of self as a distinct agent, separate from the world but self awareness is limited ● Self Recognition- sense of self as object of knowledge and evaluation ○ Awareness of qualities that make self unique at 20 months ● By 20 months, there is a sense of awareness ● They play with miniature stuff because they really wanted to play with the toys, so their emotions overrode their self awareness ○ Emotional regulation evolves at a slower pace than self awareness Lecture 11/6- Physical Development in Childhood Body growth slows and shape becomes more streamlined Skeletal growth continues (changing from cartilage to bone) ● New growth centers emerge ● Lose baby teeth ○ US = 6.5 years ○ Ghana = 5 year Handedness ● Begins as early as 1 year and strengthens ● 90% right handed in Western cultures ● Affected by experience: ○ Position in uterus

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○ Practice ○ Culture Reflects the greater capacity of one hemisphere of brain to carry out a skilled motor action ○ In right handed people, left hemisphere = more dominant Early damage to left hemisphere may cause change in handedness

Brain Development ● Significant growth between ages 2 and 6: ○ Grows to 90% of adult size ○ Reshaping and refining ○ Overabundance of synaptic connection supports plasticity- ability to grow and change shape ● Cognitive skills also increase → physical coordination, perception, attention, memory, language, logical thinking, imagination, etc. Brain Development and Language ● Broca’s Area supports grammatical processing and language production → closer to frontal lobe ● Wernicke’s Area plays a role in comprehending word meaning → near priming auditory area by temporal lobe ● Primary auditory area (AI) = first part of brain got get auditory inputs ○ Process most basic function, basic phonetics and sounds ● Language processing areas: ○ 1st area of life → most density in AI ○ At age 2 → peak of density in broca’s and wernicke’s area ○ Brain changes overtime and prioritizes skills needed/wanted to develop ● Frontal lobe areas for planning and organization develop ● Left hemisphere active → language skills and handedness ● Differences in rates of development between hemispheres suggests they continue to lateralize- favor one half over the other, during early childhood Influences on Physical Growth and Health ● Heredity/hormones: ○ Size and growth related to parents ○ Genes influence pituitary gland to release: ■ Growth hormone acts directly and also stimulates growth factor I, which triggers cell duplication ■ Thyroid stimulating hormone prompts release of thyroxine; necessary for brain development and proper growth ● Importance of sleep: ○ Contributes to body growth (GH released during sleep) ○ Contributes to cognitive performance

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■ Impact of sleep loss more prominent in low SES children ○ Children’s poor sleep affects parents sleep and functioning ○ Sleeping arrangements: ■ White 3 year olds most likely to sleep alone ■ Hispanic 3 year olds most likely to sleep with parents Nutrition: ○ Appetite becomes unpredictable ○ Like familiar foods ○ Social environment influences food choice: ■ Imitate admired people ■ Repeated exposure to food ■ Parental pressure ■ Restriction increases desire ■ Poverty ○ There are always ways to encourage good nutrition Injuries: ○ Individual differences: ■ Boys 1.5 times more likely to be injured than girls ■ Mothers judge chances of preventing injury in sons to be less ■ Temperament ○ Risk factors: ■ Poverty, single parenthood, low parental education ■ Societal conditions ○ Global injury death rates → south africa highest death rate due to injury ○ Preventing: ■ Laws prevent many injuries (ex. Car seats) ■ Many parents behave in ways that compromise safety ● 27% don’t use car seats, 84% use car seats incorrectly

Lecture 11/8- Motor Development in Childhood Gross Motor Skills → walking, running, catching, throwing, riding, etc. Fine Motor Skills → self help; dressing, eating, drawing, etc. Age 2-6, children are becoming experts in any skill they engage in (over time) Changes in throwing and catching = good example of gross motor skill development Progression of Drawing Skills ● Scribbles → during 2nd year ● First representational forms → label already made drawing around age 3, and draw boundaries and people at 3-4 years ● More realistic drawings → preschool to school age ● Early printing (writing) → ages 4-6

Development of Children’s Drawings of Geometric Shapes ● Single units (3-7 years) ● Object parts (4-13 years) ● Integrated whole (8 years) ● Cross cultural differences in drawing skills: ○ Chinese children = stressed in the belief that creativity (using a brush) must build on a foundation of artistic knowledge and techniques ○ In US, art education is more diverse and emphasize independent and self expression Development of Printing ● Up to age 3 → scribbles and varied pencil grips ● Around age 4 → “drawing print” → taking all known knowledge about drawing and apply to writing ● Between ages 4 and 6 → gradually realize writing stands for language, identify individual letters ○ Adult pencil grip by age 5 Motor Skills as Dynamic Systems ● Increasingly complex systems of action with each skill ● Four factors in each new skill: ○ CMS development ○ Body’s movement capacity ○ Child’s goals ○ Environmental supports Individual Differences in Motor Skill Development ● Body build → taller and more muscular bodies move more quickly, and acquire skill faster ● Sex: ○ Boys are better at power and force ○ Girls have better fine motor skills, balance, and foot movement ○ Social pressures help channel activities Enhancing Motor Development ● Mastered through everyday play: ○ Formal lessons have little impact ○ Preschoolers should have at least 60 minutes of unstructured play every day ●...