Exam 1 Study Guide - Summary Social Development PDF

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Lecture - Social Behavior of Children ●

Socialization: learning the expectations, rules, norms and values of a given society ○ We are constantly being socialized into a broad or smaller society ○ This is a lifelong bi-directional process ■ Ex: a friendly child with a learning disability may be more likely to get support from a teacher than a kid who is not friendly but equally as socially disabled

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Norms: rules defining appropriate behaviors and actions ○ Ex: if you get a present that you don’t like, you pretend to like it and say thank you

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Values: elements which are desirable or undesirable in a given society ○ Helps to determine norms/normative behaviors ○ Ex: if your society values education, a norm might be to be respectful to your teacher

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Status: looks at one’s position in a social structure

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Role: expectation for behavior based on a person’s particular status ○ Institutional norms/roles also help determine developmental trajectory

History of Childhood and Socialization ●

After the 1600’s → children were observed to no longer be “miniature adults” ○ Infant mortality changed parenting strategies ○ Lack of medical care and information → baby care used to be very different than it is now ○ Infanticide: if you believe your child has an issue, there are some cultures where you just leave the child in the woods and get rid of them ○ Reliance on wet nurses: a person who is NOT your mom is the person who breast feeds you ○ Misinformation ■ Ex: said that affection is bad ■ Ex: lack of knowledge about motor development

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Religion and its Role in Social Development ○ Hobbe’s Doctrine of Original Sin ■ The belief that children are born selfish and must be controlled by society ● Need purification ■ Schooling was designed to help civilize children with moral and religious education

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Rousseau’s Influence (Nature)

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○ The child will develop as his or her own pace ○ The belief that children are different than adults and not just incomplete adults ○ There is a natural order of development, that is not moral or immoral ○ Kids can not learn adult concepts when they are not capable of understanding them yet Locke’s Influence (Nurture) ○ Tabula Rosa: a child is a blank slate at birth and is molded by education/training ■ There is a powerful role in parenting ○ Children are prefectable with practice and discipline

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Darwin’s exploration into social and adaptive behavior as a baby biographer

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Hall researched children’s activities, feelings, and attitudes with questionnaires

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Freud’s Influence with Psychoanalytic Theory ○ Early life experiences are important ○ Developmental sequence of conflicts ○ Behavior is based on unconscious drives ○ Formation of Identifications: fear loss of love, guilt, and shame ○ Incorporate parental values ■ Including personality and morality

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Skinner’s Behavioral Theories and Socialization ○ Behaviorism: we see a stimulus and a response ○ Parents play important role as they determine environment/responses ○ This theory influenced parenting strategies: ■ Watson → said to limit cuddling or hugging a child or they will expect too much

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Maturation: a biologically determined process of growth that unfolds over a period of time Behavior Genetics: explore relative influences of nature and nurture Polygenic inheritance and multifactorial transmission

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Multifinality: divergence of developmental paths in which individuals start out similar and end at different points ○ Ex: the boys in the Other Wes Moore Equifinality: convergence of developmental paths in which children follow very different paths and reach the same endpoint

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Studying Social Behavior includes: ○ The ability to form attachments and the quality of the attachment relationships ○

The capacity to develop a sense of self ■ Research on the development of a sense of self

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Ex: video of the 18 month old baby trying to push a mini grocery cart When they have a sense of self, they recognize that their ability to push the cart depends on where their body is positioned/where they stand

■ Research on one’s self-concept: how a child describes himself ● What kind of factors do they mention and do they base their own description off of other people?

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We need to look at what a typical developmental pattern is and what challenges/disruptions affect the developmental trajectory

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Familial Factors ■ Ex: presence/absence of parents, parents own history, strengths, and pathologies ■ Ex: expectations/knowledge of child development, siblings, and grandparents

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Environmental Factors ■ Ex: social class, culture, religion, school, media, cohort and community, social services, particular life stressors (divorce, death, trauma, poverty)

Main Goals of Studying Social Development ○ Integrate a variety of theoretical frameworks exploring the psychological themes relevant to the social development of children ○ Identify risk and protective variables for a child’s development within the individual, family, and broader environment

Lecture - Pregnancy and Birth, Bonding and Attachment ●

Most positive things in life are changes, so they come with stressors ○ Stressors of Pregnancy → can be social and emotional ■ Pregnancy interacts with existing strengths and vulnerabilities ● Ex: are you a hypochondriac or do you have prior anxiety? ■ Adaptation to new “role” as parent ■ Pregnancy Wantedness: wanted, mistimed, or unwanted ■ Pregnancy to Receive Affection: poor model, risk factor ● Example of Risk Factor: if you are planning on having a child, just so someone will love you ■ Financial issues ■ Presence or Absence of familial or environmental support ● Increases the complexity of relationships

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Ex: “this baby is so crazy in utro, just like you are”

■ Identifications: each parent can see aspects of him/herself in the baby, including positive and negative attributes about self and other ■ Prenatal expectation and experiences may carry over and can interfere with the developing relationship with your child ●

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Gender preferences for male children throughout the world ○ People who prefer sons are more likely to use technologically based selection ○ Parents are more likely to continue having children if they have girls than boys, although we do see a trend for continuing to have children if preference for “both” genders ○

Cross Cultural Reasons Given for Preference for a Sons: ■ Economic benefits → i.e. property ownership, dowry ■ Legal and educational benefits ■ Patrilineal societies of carrying on the family name ■ Religious reasons

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Cross Cultural Reasons Given for Preference or Desire for a Daughter: ■ Care for their parents when older ■ Assistance with childcare and household tasks ■ Companion

Prenatal Care and “Preconception Planning” ○ The best time to practice good prenatal care is prior to conception ■ Teach educational information about health promoting behaviors ■ Assess for STI’s and treat because they are associated with greater risk for prematurity, still birth, low birth weight, blindness, deafness ● Can be passed through the placenta or during childbirth ○

Access and recommendations to prenatal care finds disparities in the timing of prenatal care (Dooley and Ringler, 2012) ■ Higher-risk women are less likely than lower risk women to begin prenatal care

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Barriers to Timely Prenatal Care (Dooley and Ringler, 2012) ■ Sociodemographic characteristics ● Educational attainment ● Mental status ● Language Difficulties → challenges with asking questions to the clinicians ■ Varying attitudes and beliefs regarding importance of prenatal care ■ Stressful life events/circumstances

■ Logistic barriers ● Transportation ● Difficulty getting appointments ○

Teratogens: causes of birth defects or anomalies during embryonic or fetal development ■ Need to consider dose, age of exposure and type of teratogen ■ Basic heredity and additional negative influences may affect the damage

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A Sample of Prenatal Recommendations: ■ Regular assessment of maternal and gestational health ■ Diet → calcium, iron, folic acid, weight gain ■ Genetic screening ● Ex: for tay sachs disease, sickle cell, thalassemia ■ Blood typing (Rh-) ■ Gestational Diabetes screening ■ Pain discomfort and exercise → individualized goals and coping strategies ■ Sexual activity ■ Breastfeeding discussions ■ Childbirth, anesthesia, PPD

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Prenatal cigarette smoking → low birth weight babies and increased risk of SIDS

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Prenatal exposure to marijuana → we still need more research ■ Discourage use because studies have shown prenatal exposure associated with lower scores on visual motor tasks, problems with visual motor coordination, decreased attention and behavior problem ● Some increase SIDS, but confound with cigarette smoking (ACOG, 2015)

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Prenatal Exposure to alcohol → the leading preventable cause of intellectual disabilities ■ There is no safe dose and most doctors recommend stopping drinking completely ■ ** According to survey research, when women were asked about drinking at any time during pregnancy, 30.3% of women reported drinking at some time during pregnancy and 5.7% reported binge drinking (Rasmussen et al. 2009) **

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Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: since its identification as a diagnosis in 1973, there had been relatively few outright changes in the criterion for FAS ■ Head and Facial Abnormalities ■ Prenatal and Postnatal Growth Deficits → growth

retardation, microcephaly, skeletal, brain and heart damage ■ Central Nervous System (CNS) Abnormalities ● Structural, neurological, or behavioral abnormalities ○ Ex: intellectual disabilities, poor impulse control, limited judgement, hyperactivity ■ There are physical and behavioral correlates of prenatal exposure of alcohol, which is not as extreme as being diagnosed with FAS ● Over the years, these traits have been called: ○ Fetal Alcohol Effects (FAE) ○ Alcohol Related Neurological Disorders (ARND) ○ Alcohol Related Birth Defects (ARBD)

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Most recent DSM 5 revisions includes pFAS or partial Fetal Alcohol syndrome ○ Usually has less physical facial features and growth deficits ○ DSM 5 also includes an “Experimental” diagnostic category for additional research

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Neurobehavioral Disorder associated with Prenatal Alcohol Exposure ○ Criteria include more than minimal exposure to prenatal alcohol ○ Impaired neurocognitive function, self-regulation, and adaptive functioning

History of Childbirth ○ Before 1800’s in Western nations birth took place at home and was a family centered event ○ Industrial revolution moved births to hospitals to assure health of mothers and babies ■ 1950’s - 1960’s → people questioned the birth process especially of strong drugs ○

Natural childbirth movement of Grantly Dick-Read and Lamaze began ■ Challenged cultural attitudes that taught women to fear birth ● Believed that it is better to be “aware and awake”

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Provided education, relaxation, and breathing techniques ■ Informed childbirth includes: ● Emotional support → reassurance, encouragement, praise ● Physical support → comfort, thirst ● Cognitive support → information, coping strategies (Rosen, 2004)

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Research indicated the presence of a partner led to shorter labors and fewer

complications ■ These findings supported in U.S. and Guatemalan hospitals ●

Current Trends in Childbirth Experiences ○ Increased numbers of homelike accomodations in hospitals ■ Ex: individual rooms ○

High Tech Childbirth → prenatal testing, 3D ultrasound, electronic fetal monitoring

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Cesarean Sections ■ Mother’s pelvis is too small for the baby to pass ■ Baby positioned abnormally (breech) ■ C-section rates are impacted by both historical context and culture ● Ex: birthdate, vbac, standard of care Rooming In with the baby is promoted in many hospitals ■ Says it facilitates the bonding process ■ LDRP: labor, delivery, recovery, postpartum rooms are now used in many hospitals ■ Midwives and Doulas are more involved in the process ■ Length of staying in the hospital has decreased ● Legislation has worked against “drive through deliveries” ■ Importance of postpartum period for primary and secondary invention models

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Parental Pregnancy Wantedness and Development (Saleem and Surkan, 2014) ■ Compared unwanted, mistimed, or wanted pregnancies ■ Mothers and fathers were assessed ■ Unwanted pregnancy for mothers are at risk factor for social-emotional problems ■ Discordance between parents associated with greater social-emotional problems in Kindergarten

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Prenatal Perception of Infant Personality → parents talk to the developing fetus ■ Zeanah (1985) Study ● Do parents have a view of what their infant’s personality is midpregnancy? ● Does the prenatal impression of the infant’s personality predict their postnatal impression? ●

Subjects: ○ 38 couples ○ 1st pregnancy

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Singleton Birth Gender unknown

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Had the parents rate their perceptions at 27 weeks and 33 weeks before birth and 1 month and 7 weeks following birth ○ Rated them for → activity, rhythmicity, adaptability, intensity, mood and distractibility

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Results → perceptions at 37 weeks and 1 month showed stability for several dimensions ○ Mother’s parental perceptions of baby’s activity, rhythmicity, and adaptability predicted postnatal perceptions ○ Father’s perceptions prenatally predicted rhythmicity, mood, and distractibility ○ Parents DID NOT perceive their own babies similar ■ Mothers perceived babies as more active than fathers ■ 43% of mothers and 60% of fathers DID NOT change in temperament predictions ■ Those who changed had more desperate/difficult labors than expected

Couvade Syndrome: men who suffer the signs and symptoms associated with pregnancy ○ Symptoms include morning sickness, backache, exhaustion and labor pains ○ Estimates of up to 80% of men experience some degree of symptoms ○

Historical Reason → the man’s actions protect mother and baby from evil by distraction ■ Strengthens the bond between father/child

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Contemporary Reasons: ■ Physical expression of anxiety over birth ■ Empathy with the mother ■ Womb envy

Weaver and Cranley (1989) → looked at paternal attachment behaviors with the fetus ○ Hypothesis #1 → the strength of the marital relationship during gestation is positively associated with the father’s attachment to the fetus ○ Hypothesis #2 → incidence of physical symptoms related to pregnancy is associated with the father’s attachment ○ ○

Sampled 100 fathers (90 first time) Looked at measures on attachment scale, marital relationship and report of health and physical symptoms

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Results → strength of marital relationship was associated with paternal-fetal attachment ■ Limited support for relationship between physical symptoms and attachment

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Women view becoming a parent more positively than men ○ Advantages of Parenthood → give and receive warmth/affection; stimulation and fun; generativity ○ Disadvantages of Parenthood → loss of freedom, being tied down

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Pregnancy and Quality of the Marital Relationship ○ Becoming parents impacts marital bond ○ Factors associated with strong bond ■ Fondness/affection between partners ■ Empathy/awareness of other ■ Approachability of each partner ■ Ability to work together successfully ○

Quality of the Marital Relationship Following the Birth of a Child - Susan Crohan (1996) ■ Longitudinal study of White and African American married couples ■ Spouses who become parents report lower marital happiness and more frequent conflicts after the transition to parenthood than before

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Isabella and Belsky (1985) reported that insecure infant-mother relationships were greater in families where the mothers show the greatest decline in quality of marital relationship

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Volling’s (2015) research investigates the marital relationship following the birth of the second child ■ Couples demonstrated greater ease adapting to the changes of a second child ■ Marital satisfaction does not continue to decline with each additional child

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Goldberg and Sayer (2006) looked at the quality of the relationship in lesbian couples after the transition to parenthood ■ Findings: ● Lesbians’ love decreased across the transition and conflict increased ● These data is consistent with research on heterosexual couple

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Gianino’s (2006) Study of gay men who adopted: ■ Same findings as the lesbian couples

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Cowan and Cowan (2000, 2010) Longitudinal Research on Becoming a Family

■ Intervention group for some couples who were ready to have children ■ Results found that the fathers in the intervention group were more involved and satisfied with parenting as well as reporting more marital satisfaction ■ Mothers in intervention group were more satisfied with division of labor, sexual relationships, and the balancing of life stressors ■ Results → by 5 years post intervention, many of the parenting benefits had been diminished, although there was overall higher couple satisfaction than for the nonintervention group ○

Bonding: the emotional tie from parent to infant

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Klaus and Kennel: study caring for premature and high risk infants ■ Found that patients whose newborns were hospitalized in ICU nurseries often had a difficult relation once the infant was out of the hospital ■ Showed a higher incidence than expected for physical abuse and failure to thrive ■ Began to study the process of bonding and later attachments between all newborns and their parents ■ Sensitive Periods: a period of time for infant contact in the first minutes, hours, days which may alter parents’ later behavior with infant ■ Critical Period: if an event doesn’t happen in a certain time period, the development can no longer occur ● K and K clarify that early parental/infant separation does not PREVENT formation of a bond

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Theoretical Assumption → caretaker bonding is correlated with infant survival ○ Bonding allows for self-sacrifice in meeting infant’s needs ○ BUT, measuring the bond is challenging ○

One way to assess bonding is to look as aspects of maternal care behavior ■ 1972 Study by Klaus and Kennel ● Control group → normal routine, glimpse at birth, id at 6-12 hours, 2030 minutes every 4 hours ● Experimental group → 1 hour extra contact at birth ○ 5 hours each day ● Results: ○ Mothers who had greater contact showed more soothing, fondling, eye contact at one year ○ At two years used more words, fewer imperatives ■ 1972-1983 → 17 experimental studies explored the effects of separating babies on bonding

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13 dealt with giving the parent more contact in the first hour ○ Swedish study showed that an extra 15 minutes at birth increased time looking at the face and kissing at 3 months Possible reasons for the strong impact first the first hour of contact: ○ Quiet alert state ○ Response to touch (crawling studies) ○ Consistent pattern of contact ○ Eye contact almost simultaneous

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