Exam Review for Anatomy and Physiology Ch 18 and 19 PDF

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Review for the exam for anatomy and physiology chapters 18 and 19, the first exam of the semester. It covers the whole exam description....

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1. Of the following blood vessel components, which is the most critical in regulating systemic blood pressure? a) Tunica intima b) Tunica media** ( 673) c) Tunica externa d) Venous valves 2. An increasing lumen diameter is termed ___vasodialation_______ and occurs when smooth muscle __relaxes________.(673) 3. Which type of blood vessel has the largest amount of fibrous tissues? Muscular arteries **

4. Which blood vessels are responsible for the exchange of gases and nutrients with tissues?(671) Capillary function

5. Which of the cardiovascular components contains most of the body’s blood volume at any one time? Systemic veins and venules ????

6. The least permeable capillaries are ___brain_______and the most permeable capillaries are ____bone marrow______. 7. Explain the factors that affect peripheral resistance. (677) 8. Blood vessel radius dramatically affects resistance. Resistance varies inversely with the vessel’s radius. As the vessel radius increases (dilates) the resistance to blood flow decreases, and vice versa.

9. Blood viscosity is the inherent resistance that all liquids have to flow. Blood has a high viscosity due to the proteins and cells that it contains. 10.Blood vessel length: The longer the blood vessel, the greater the resistance. More pressure is needed to propel blood through a long vessel than a short one.

11. What is the pulse pressure? (1) Systolic pressure averages about 120 mm Hg, and (2) Diastolic pressure averages about 80 mm Hg when the person is at rest. The difference between the systolic and diastolic pressures—about 40 mm Hg—is known as the pulse pressure.

12.If the systolic blood pressure is 115 mm Hg and diastolic pressure is 85 mm Hg, what is the MAP? (MAP= dyostolic + 1/3 pulse)

85+ 1/3 ( 30) ** just divide By three 85+10 MAP =95 13. What are the factors affecting cardiac output? Cardiac output (CO) is the product of stroke volume (the amount of blood pumped with each beat or cardiac cycle) times heart rate (the number of beats per minute) the amount of blood pumped every minute ( can be affected by exercise) cardiac output. ( can change in a healthy human being by drinking water and or urination, bleeding) epinephrine and norepinephrine

14.What are the effects of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems on the cardiac output? Sympathetic effects on blood pressure: (directly affects the vessels, contractility) Sympathetic axons release norepinephrine and epinephrine onto cardiac muscle cells

and the smooth muscle cells of blood vessels, to produce two immediate changes: (1) an increase in heart rate and contractility, which increases cardiac output, and (2) vasoconstriction of all types of vessels, but especially arterioles, which increases peripheral resistance. Both changes increase blood pressure. Parasympathetic effects on blood pressure: (affects heart rate) Axons of the parasympathetic system, via the vagus nerve, release acetylcholine primarily onto certain cardiac pacemaker cells and atrial cardiac muscle cells. This slows the heart rate, which decreases cardiac output and blood pressure. Inhibits sympathetic neurons during periods of elevated parasympathetic activity, causes vasodilation and lower peripheral resistance (Figure 18.7b).

15.Which part of autonomous nervous system increases vasoconstriction? How does that change peripheral resistance and blood pressure? Nervous system maintance of blood Sympathetic (2) vasoconstriction of all types of vessels, but especially arterioles, which increases peripheral resistance. Both changes increase blood pressure

Endocrine system maintaince of blood pressure a. Hormones that control resistance: Epinephrine and norepinephrine (from the adrenal medulla) cause vasoconstriction and increase peripheral resistance, elevating blood pressure. Angiotensin-II is a vasoconstrictor (that sharply increases blood pressure and peripheral resistance) and atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) is produced by the atria in response to increased blood volume, causes vasodilation (decrease in peripheral and blood pressure)

16.Explain the role of baroreceptors in regulating the blood pressure. The baroreceptor reflex: (pressure receptors)( blood pressure is monitored by the ANS with specialized mechanoreceptors in the vessels) The baroreceptor reflex arc is a negative feedback loop that responds to increases or decreases in blood pressure ( ex: aorta, carotid sinus) affects peripheral resistance and cardiac output.(Figure 18.8a). a( if you put pressure in certain vessels you can cause someone’s blood pressure to decrease: can be used in martial arts) i. Cardiovascular center = is the medulla oblangata

17.Name the hormones that increase the blood volume. How does it affect it blood pressure?

The endocrine system regulates blood volume through hormones: a. When blood pressure increases: Atrial( right atrial) cells secrete ANP, which causes the kidneys to excrete more water and sodium ions to decrease blood volume, and so blood pressure. b. When blood pressure decreases: (1) ADH secretion triggers thirst and increases the amount of water retained by the kidneys, raising blood volume and blood pressure. Acts in the hypothalamus and activates our thirst (2)angiotensin-1 is inactivated but Renin secretion from the kidneys, triggered when the blood pressure drops, activates angiotensin-II, which induces thirst, causes sodium ion retention, and as a result increases blood volume. (3) Angiotensin-II also triggers the secretion of another hormone, aldosterone, from adrenal glands, which causes retention of sodium ions and water from the kidneys, increasing blood volume.  If there is a lot of blood flowing to the kidney there will be water loss but can be vice versa The urinary system controls blood volume with these responses: If blood pressure increases: More water flows through the filtering tubules of the kidneys than these cells can return to the blood. This water is lost from the body as urine. Blood volume and blood pressure decrease

atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) is produced by the atria in response to increased blood volume, causes vasodilation (decrease in peripheral and blood pressure)

Reduced blood volume= hypovolemia

18.What hormone decreases the blood pressure by increasing urination? When blood pressure decreases: (1) ADH secretion triggers thirst and increases the amount of water retained by the kidneys, raising blood volume and blood pressure. Acts in the hypothalamus and activates our thirst

19.Why does increase in urination results in a decrease in the blood pressure?

If blood pressure increases more water flows through the tiny filtering tubes of the kidneys called tubules than these cells can return to the blood. This water is then lost from the body as urine and blood volume and blood pressure decrease .

20.After centrifuging, of the listed blood components, which contains the components of immune function? Plasma proteins form a colloid that makes up about 9% of plasma volume and include the following: a. Albumin is a large protein synthesized in the liver. Why is albumin important? Albumin is responsible for blood’s colloid osmotic pressure, which draws water into the blood by osmosis. b. Immune proteins: the γ-globulins, also known as antibodies, are made by leukocytes, components of the immune system. c. Transport proteins bind to lipid-based molecules that otherwise are incompatible with the mostly water-based plasma, which allows these molecules to use blood as a transportation system. d. Clotting proteins stop bleeding from injured blood vessels by forming a blood clot with assistance from platelets.

21.What is the extracellular matrix of blood? Plasma

22.A major function of the most common plasma protein, albumin, is to create ________ pressure. a. Albumin is a large protein synthesized in the liver. Why is albumin important? Albumin is responsible for blood’s colloid osmotic pressure, which draws water into the blood by osmosis.

buffering changes in plasma pH

23.Red blood cells are efficient oxygen transport cells. Of the following characteristics, which is the major contributor to the significant oxygencarrying capacity of a red blood cell? The typical erythrocyte or red blood cell (RBC) is a biconcave disc or a flattened, donutshaped cell that is concave on both sides. This shape increases the surface area of the cell which is vital to their role in gas exchange. a. Mature RBCs are anucleate, having lost the nucleus during maturation, and lack most of the other typical cellular organelles. b. This creates room in the cytosol for enzymes and nearly 1 billion oxygenbinding hemoglobin (Hb) proteins. \Hemoglobin is a large protein that consists of four polypeptide subunits: two alpha (α) chains and two (β) beta chains (Figure 19.3). a. Each polypeptide is bound to an iron-containing compound called a heme group. b. An iron ion in each heme group is oxidized when it binds to oxygen in regions of high oxygen concentration, such as the lungs, which forms a red colored molecule called oxyhemoglobin (HbO2). c. Hemoglobin releases oxygen into regions, such as the tissues surrounding systemic capillary beds, where the oxygen concentration is low. d. In tissues where oxygen levels are low, hemoglobin binds to carbon dioxide (CO2) forming carbaminohemoglobin, which accounts for about 23% of the CO2 transportation in blood.

24.Which of formed elements have nucleus? Leukocytes( lobes) , erythrocytes( ejected once matured) and platelets(singl nucelus) 25.Hemoglobin can transport _4_______ oxygen atoms.

26.Oxygen binds to the ____iron atom___ portion of hemoglobin

27.A patient with low iron levels would experience which of the following symptoms? An increase in fatigue ???

28.Name the 3 major reasons underlying anemia? Explain each of those reasons. (1) decreased amount of hemoglobin, (2) decreased hematocrit, and (3) abnormal hemoglobin.

???

29.A hematopoietic stem cell will give rise to _myeloid cell line and lymphoid cell line _________.

30.Predict the outcome of an overdose of the hormone erythropoietin. 31. a. the blood viscosity increases to levels that may induce heart attacks or strokes b. oxygen-carrying capacity remains unchanged despite elevated red blood cell counts c. red blood cell counts remain unchanged, but the number of reticulocytes increase d. blood viscosity levels decrease while oxygen-carrying capacity increases

32.If a patient has pernicious anemia, the inability of the body to absorb vitamin B12, the patient ________. would have a decreased number of red blood cells

33. An elevated neutrophil count would be indicative of __ an acute bacterial infection

34.Antihistamines counter the actions of which white blood cells? Basophils

35.Leukemia is a general descriptor for which of the following disorders? Overproduction of abnormal leukocytes

36.What are the cells that are committed to differentiate to Monocytes, Granulocytes and erythrocytes respectively?

37.At what stage of granulocytes development, the differences among neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils are visible? (changes in granule type and nucleus shape) precursor cell and mature cells

38.What is the role of the hormone erythropoietin in erythropoiesis? Regulation of Erythropoiesis is accomplished by erythropoietin that triggers a negative feedback loop which maintains the hematocrit within a normal range. Describe the regulation feedback loop (Figure 19.5): a. Stimulus: Blood levels of oxygen fall below normal. b. Receptor: Kidney cells detect falling oxygen levels. c. Control center: Kidneys produce more erythropoietin and release this hormone into the bloodstream. d. Effector/Response: Production of erythrocytes increases. e. Homeostasis: Blood levels of oxygen rise to normal.

39.List at least two differences between granulocyte and agranulocytes.

40.What are the functions of each leukocyte? Which one is the most common? The least common and the biggest?

A __ Megakaryocyte 41.______ is the progenitor of platelets.

42.Why don't platelets form plug in undamaged vessels? Only contact of platelets with exposed collagen fibers and von Willebrand factor causes them to be sticky and form plugs

43.Activation of the extrinsic pathway of coagulation requires exposure of the blood to _________.

44.Why doesn't a clot fill the entire vasculature system once it has started forming? (hint: explain clot regulation mechanisms such as thrombolysis and anticoagulants) Hemostasis, Part 5: Thrombolysis. Describe thrombolysis. Thrombolysis is the process that begins after the injury has healed and blood clotting is no longer necessary . What occurs

during fibrinolysis? Fibrinolysis, the first step in thrombolysis, is the process that breaks down the fibrin glue. (Figure 19.15)



Endothelial cells release tissue plasminogen activator (tpa) : initiate thrombolysis o 1. Tpa activates plasminogem o

2. Inactive plasminogen is found in plasma

o o

3. Binds to fibrin molecules as they are incorporated into blood clot 4. tpa converts bound inactive plasminogen to activate enzyme plasmin

o

5. Plasmin degrades fribrin and clot dissolves; remaining components of clot dissociate from endo endothelium and process is complete



An injectable heparin medication might be prescribed for a patient with _ Anticlot Medications ( patients with thrombi or emboli ??? o o

Heparin Warfarin

45._______disorder.

46.Which bleeding disorder is caused by any condition that suppresses or destroys the red bone marrow? 47.What is the first and the last clotting factors activated in the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways? Intrinsic is 12, finis 10 Extrinsic 7 , 10

48.What are the tree components of thrombin activator complex?

49.What is the function of thrombin in hemostasis?

Both the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways lead to the formation of factor Xa, which is involved in the formation of fibrin during common pathway (Figure 19.13). Summarize the common pathway. a. Factors Xa (10) and Va(5) along with calcium ions form prothrombin activator(enzyme we need to activate fibrinogen; enzymes are inactivated when not in use??), which converts prothrombin into the active form, thrombin. b. Thrombin turns fibrinogen into fibrin, which “glues” the platelet plug together in the final step of the coagulation cascade.

  

Goal of both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways is to produce active enzyme factor Xa Factor Xa, accomplishes second goal of coagulation by producing enzyme Thrombin Thrombin accomplishes third goal of coagulation ??producing fibrinogen to fibrin ??

50.Which agglutinins are naturally present in someone who is B+? Anti -A...