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Final Exam Study Guide Blue Highlight – Hauser Textbook Green Highlight – Keith and Lundberg Textbook Yellow Highlight – Blackboard Posting

Keith and Lundberg, Chapter Six, Style 

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Define figure. Define trope. 62 o Figures are creative arrangements of words in phrases or sentences that catch the audience’s attention and focus it on key ideas. o Tropes involve replacing words or phrases with less literal terms to embellish your rhetorical language Why do the authors argue that “no language is neutral or unadorned”? 70 o Everything that is said or written is dependent on multiple meanings, play, and artifice used to persuade people A full definition of rhetoric must acknowledge the ways that figures and tropes persuade. What are they? 70 o Argumentatively, emotionally, and aesthetically

Weaver, Bb, “Ultimate Terms in Contemporary Rhetoric”    

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How does Weaver define ‘god-term’? 88 o That expression about which all other expressions are ranked as subordinate What is the surest indicator of a god-term? 90 o The capacity to demand sacrifice What is a hypostatized term? 92 o One which treats as a substance or concrete reality that which has only conceptual existence What does Weaver consider to be the most significant difference in the way critics can analyze devil-terms as opposed to god-terms? 101 o One cannot explain how they generate their peculiar force of repudiation What is the nature of a ‘charismatic term’? 105 o Terms of considerable potency whose referents it is virtually impossible to discover or to construct through imagination

Tropes: Stylistic Devices for Rhetorical Analysis (Tropes and Figure on Readings tab, Courseweb) 

Recognize and define the following tropes and figures of speech: o Metaphor - a usually indirect comparison used to describe something with a word or phrase that is not meant literally, but that, by means of a vivid comparison,

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expresses something about it (Joe is a deer) and in which qualities of one are transferred by implication to the other Analogy - a (usually) direct comparison between two things that are similar in some way, often used to help explain something or make it easier to understand (Joe runs like a deer) Form - the raising and fulfilling of expectations in an audience, or simply the structure of a rhetorical act Crescendo - a gradual increase in intensity climax - the conclusion of a sequence of phrases or sentences, each more forceful or intense than the last hyperbole - deliberate and obvious exaggeration used for effect alliteration - a poetic or literary effect achieved by using several words that begin with the same or similar consonants anaphora - the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses or lines. irony - a statement whose real meaning is recognizably opposite of what is literally said satire - the use of wit, especially irony, sarcasm, and ridicule, to criticize faults eloquence - the ability to speak forcefully, expressively, and persuasively euphemism - a word or phrase used in place of a term that might be considered too direct, harsh, unpleasant, or offensive identification - a proposal which produces in the audience a powerful feeling of affinity with another person or group, often the speaker victimization - to single somebody out unfairly for punishment or ill treatment or to use the perception of victimization as a rhetorical tactic cynicism - in the modern sense, doubting or contemptuous of human nature or the motives, goodness, or sincerity of others example - something that is representative by virtue of having typical features of the thing it represents demonization – an argument process in which evil and disreputable characteristics are ascribed to an enemy to arouse hostility deduction - an argument in which, if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true induction - an argument in which, if the premises are true, the conclusion is probably true syllogism - a formal deductive argument made up of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion in which, if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Enthymeme - a syllogism with one missing premise, usually assumed to be supplied by the audience

Hauser, Chapter Thirteen, Rhetorical Form as Strategy 

What marks goal-directed discourse? 244

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o Careful selection of symbols, construction of appeals, engagement of listeners as feeling and valuing beings Are the appeals of rhetoric adapted, universal, or neutral appeals? 244 o Adapted What are Gregg’s six basic patterns of human perception and what do they mean? 246247 o Edging (formulating boundaries), rhythm, association, classification, and abstraction, hierarchy “All structures invite a particular expectation of patterned development and completion.” Why is this important to rhetoric? 248 o Because all our choices of argument, organization, language, action, occasion, setting, medium and the like are all choices of structure. What do we imply when we say that “rhetoric is an answer to the questions posed by the situation in which it arises”? 251 o That rhetorical acts adopt certain strategies for encompassing these situations What are associational clusters? 253 o Terms and ideas that congregate together What are syllogistic progression, qualitative progression, repetitive form, conventional form, and minor or incidental form, as defined by Kenneth Burke, in the sense that forms work by guiding audience expectations and/or desires? 257-259 o Syllogistic form – the form of an argument that is perfectly conducted, with each premise leading to the next, step-by-step o Qualitative progression – a form in which the presence of one quality prepares us for another, so that the audience doesn't necessarily anticipate what happens next but in retrospect can see clearly how everything that happened before was a setup for what followed. o Repetitive form – to consistently maintain a principle by presenting it in different ways o Conventional form – audience recognition of a familiar form o Minor or incidental form – devices of expression, each of which can be regarded as a formal event in and of itself What are Hariman’s four political rhetorical styles? 259 o Realist, courtly, republican, and bureaucratic

Keith and Lundberg, Chapter Four, Argument and Persuasion 

What are rhetorical proofs and what are the three principal proofs? 36 o Ways of making speech persuasive  Logos – logical reasoning  Ethos – speaker credibility  Pathos – emotional argument

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Name and define three commonly accepted patterns of reason on which enthymemes rely. 37 o Signs – involve one thing indicating another

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o Cause and effect – arguments about the consequences of things or actions o Analogies – compare seemingly different things What is the difference between real and hypothetical examples? 38 o Real examples – things from your own experience o Hypothetical examples – made-up examples Name and explain four ways that speakers might create ethos. 39 o Action – speakers might explicitly call on the history of their actions o Deeds – speakers might point out deeds that exemplify their character o Understanding – speakers can show they understand the audience’ point of view by adapting carefully to them, identifying similarities in their experiences and beliefs o Expertise – justified by citing their education or the research they have done with experts How is pathos most effectively used? 40 o By putting it in harmony with other proofs What are topoi? 40 o The general forms that arguments take regardless of their actual content Name and explain four types of general topoi. 41 o More and less likely – if the more likely thing does not happen, the less likely thing will also not happen o Consistency of motives – if a person has a reason to do something, he or she will probably do it o Hypocrisy – if standards apply to one person, they should apply to another o Analogy – if things are alike in an obvious way, they will also be alike in other ways Name and define Aristotle’s five subjects to which special topoi apply. 43 o Finances – the public funding of the government o War and peace – the government and issues about diplomacy o National defense – issues about the military o Imports and exports – the government’s trade policy o Framing of law – the workings of elected representatives What is the rhetorical meaning of the word clash? 44 o When two arguments meet head-on over an issue What is a stalemate? 44 o A point at which each party just contradicts the other What is the difference between presumption and burden of proof? 44-45 o Presumption – a tie-breaking principle, a prior decision about which side should be given the benefit of the doubt in the case of a tie o Burden of proof – accusers have to prove you are guilty but you don’t have to prove you are innocent Know and define the three legal argument stock issues. 46 o Fact – What happened? o Definition – What was it? o Value – What should be done? Know and define the five policy argument stock issues. 47

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o Significance – is the problem significant? Does it matter? o Inherence – is the cause of the problem inherent in the status quo? o Plan – is there a consistent plan and can it be implemented? o Solvency – does the plan actually solve the problem? o Disadvantages – does the plan create greater problems than it solves? Recognize and define the eight fallacies described in the book. 48-50 o Ad personam or ad hominem – speaker makes judgments or personal attacks about the person rather than the arguments o Ad populum – speaker argues that ‘if it’s popular and lots of people believe it, it must be true.’ o Appeal to authority – argument depends on the knowledge of experts who may not be appropriate o Appeal to ignorance – when the originators of an argument do not meet the burden of proof but argue the point anyway o Guilt by association – conclusions based on evidence that is irrelevant to the point at issue o Post hoc ergo propter hoc – ‘after this, therefore because of this’ – faulty cause and effect reasoning o Red herring – when an arguer changes the issues so that they are irrelevant to the argument being presented o Slippery slope – faulty cause and effect fallacy in which required links in the chain of reasoning may be argued but not present

Hauser, Chapter Fourteen, Strategic Forms of Argument Structures  

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What does Aristotle’s syllogistic form maintain? 264 o That we can test the value of an argument by examining the relationship among its premises What were Toulmin’s two objections to Aristotle’s syllogistic logic? 266 o It does not reflect the way people actually argue o It is insensitive to different reasoning patterns as they develop in arguments How do Toulmin’s first and second triads function? 266 o The first triad describes the main line of argument o The second triad pertains to the force of an argument. How does Hauser identify and define the three elements in each triad? 266-267 o First triad consists of:  Data – answers the question “What have you got to go on?” Arguer presents fact and opinion as data.  Warrant – answers the question “How did you get there?” provides the rationale for drawing an inference from the data to the claim.  Claim – the inference drawn as a conclusion from the data. o Second triad consists of:  Backing – contains evidence and argument to support a warrant.  Rebuttal – part of an argument that states exceptions or reasons why the warrant shouldn’t hold.

Qualifier – indicates the strength with which we hold the claim. Force of the claim depends on the strength of the rebuttal. For Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca, what is the test of whether an argument is rational or irrational? 269 o How audiences judge an argued case in terms of how they process and remake the appeals How do Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca define processes of association and dissociation? 269-270 o Processes of association are “schemes which bring separate elements together and allow us to establish a unity among them …” o Processes of dissociation are “techniques of separation which have the purpose of dissociating, separating, disuniting elements which are regarded as forming a whole …” What are the three groups of reality-structure arguments? 272-273 o Sequential relations, relations of coexistence, and establishing reality structures 

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Hauser, Chapter Eight, Persuasiveness of Character 

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When decisions are made more on the basis of who is advising us rather than the advice itself, what is this rhetorical transaction commonly called? 146 o Ethos What are the two important features of ethos, according to Hauser? 148 o First, ethos is dynamic (an interpretation based on the way a rhetor behaves in presenting an appeal) o Second, ethos is a caused response (developed through rhetor choices of inclusion and exclusion) What three types of habits do audiences consider when assessing the character of a rhetor? 154-157 o Mental habits, moral habits, and emotional habits What three conclusions does Hauser draw about how ethos as an interpretation is formed in rhetoric? 158 o First, ethos grows from arguments and exhortations that are relevant to the subject o Second, ethos is the product of the interaction between our disposition to respond … and the special needs of our audience o Third, a rhetorical analysis of ethos avoids trait ascriptions as qualities that communicators actually possess What is the difference in the focus of ethos and ethical appeals?159 o Questions of ethos focus on the perceptions of the speaker caused by his rhetoric o Questions of ethical appeals focus on the issues raised (or suppressed) and the quality of arguments addressed to them

Cavender and Kahane, “Political Advertising”

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What were the seven types of political ads discussed in lecture and what were their definitions? (the answer to this question can be found on Bb Course Documents tab) o Backfire: The words, or image, of a candidate can be used against him or her to show that the candidate cannot be believed, has broken a promise, or has “flipflopped” on an important issue. Based on the premise that the camera, or the microphone, doesn’t lie, these ads are effective because they work by selfincrimination. o Biographical: Candidates whose backgrounds and qualifications for office are not well-known, or who simply want to humanize their appeal, use biographical ads to present the most favorable versions of their life stories. o Children and Innocents: Images of children play on a number of powerful emotions, including fear, anxiety, and hope for the future. These images command the viewers’ attention and tug at their heartstrings. o Commander in Chief: Is the candidate fit to be the commander in chief, to be entrusted with the power to go to war and the responsibility of defending the country? And what would the candidate’s leadership style be like? Of course, in re-election campaigns, incumbent presidents can take advantage of imagery from their first terms. o Documentary: The use of news footage and documentary techniques can give an ad a feeling of authenticity and spontaneity. o Fear: Fear is a powerful emotion, and instilling fear of the opponent can be a way of gaining support for a candidate. This is easy to do in an election in which the opposing candidate is relatively unknown and untested in the national arena. o Real People: If the candidate is usually the star of a commercial, then “real people” can serve as valuable extras. Sometimes they even find themselves in starring roles. These citizens represent the electorate, and they are used in commercials to show that the candidate is in touch with their concerns and feelings—or that the opponent is not. Basically, there are two types of “real people” spots: one shows the candidate directly interacting with one or more people, in a situation that looks as candid and unrehearsed as possible; and the other uses man-in-the-street testimonials in documentary-style scenes of supposedly genuine off-the-cuff reactions.

Cavender and Kahane, Bb, “Managing the News” 

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What are the three principal influences on news media and why are they influential? 272, 274, and 276 o The People – purchasing power o Advertisers – control of revenue o The Government – control of access In what two ways does corporate power affect the dissemination of the news? 282 o By getting the viewpoints of big business reported favorably in the mass media o By preventing conflicting viewpoints from being reported or stressed

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For what three reasons do the authors claim that news has increasingly become a source of entertainment rather than a source of information? 285 o One, money (profit) is the bottom line o Two, vested interests shape the news to their advantage o Three, the public wants entertainment more than information What is the effect that established “beats” are the principal way that news is gathered? 286 o Most news is given to reporters by government officials or by others who have or represent power or wealth Is news reporting supposed to be objective or subjective? 291 o Objective What is news media self-censorship? 295 o Deciding what news to report and what news not to report What five devices do the authors list that are used to slant the news? 299-303 o Stories can be played up or down o Misleading, sensational, or opinionated headlines can be used o Images can slant the news o Follow-up stories can be omitted or played down o Points of view can be conveyed in cartoons and comic strips What are the three reasons that follow-up stories rarely make headlines? 302 o One, they are more difficult to obtain than breaking news stories o Two, the public conception of “news” is what is new, and follow-up stories are just more of the same o Three, most of us have short attention spans What do the authors identify as the most graphic illustration of television’s power to change the world? 306 o Its effect on the nature of war and associated diplomacy What do the authors identify as the most important change in the news business? 312 o The ever-increasing concentration of media ownership in fewer hands

Hauser, Chapter Two, Rhetorical Thinking    

Aristotle was the first to codify what two dominant aspects of public discourse? 18 o Method and social consequences What three discursive practices, important for public decision making, are still used today as modes of communal thinking about life and experience? 19 o Narrative, dialectic, and rhetoric Does narrative thinking transmit norms or challenge them? 21 o Transmit What kind of thinking posed objections to all doubtful propositions until the objections were refuted or the original proposition was replaced by one better able to withstand critical examination? 22 o Dialectic

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If dialectic sought the stability of truths that transcended the uncertainties of day-to-day living, how was rhetoric different? 24 o Rhetoric was much less attuned to permanence and much more attuned to change. What was sophistic rhetoric based on? 26 o The idea of arguing from probability What is the two-sided argument, dissoi logoi? 27 o Arguing both sides of an issue in order to discover which had the stronger arguments. What is kairos? 28 o The sense of time that related to knowing when to speak and when to be silent, when the time was right to make a particular argument and when it was best to wait. What does Hauser identify as the hallmark of human intelligence? 31 o Our ability to use symbol...