Final Exam study guide PDF

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Final Exam study guide-definitions and essays. Prof. Dumont....

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Public Administration Final Study Guide The final exam will be administered through Blackboard. It will be available for 72 hours, from Midnight on Monday to midnight on Thursday. 1. Organization Theory: A set of propositions that seeks to explain or predict how groups and individuals behave in differing organizational arrangements. An “organization” is a group of people who jointly work to achieve at least one common goal. A “theory” is a proposition or set of propositions that seeks to explain or predict something (p. 215). As management got more complicated, theories developed on how to manage the business better. 1. Organizations exist to accomplish production-related and economic goals. 2. There is one best way to organize for production, and that way can be found through systematic, scientific inquiry. 3. Production is maximized through specialization and division of labor. 4. People and organizations act in accordance with rational economic principles. (p. 217) 2.Organization Behavior: The study of organizational behavior includes those aspects of the behavioral sciences that focus on the understanding of human behavior in organizations. (p. 250). It focused attention on seeking to answer questions such as how organizations could encourage their workers to grow and develop. (p. 250). This new approach to analyzing organizations focused on people, groups, and the relationships among them and the organizational environment. It was built around the following assumptions: 1. Organizations are created to serve human ends. 2. Organizations and people need each other (organizations need ideas, energy, and talent; people need careers, salaries, and work opportunities). 3. When the fit between the needs of the individual and the organization is poor, one or both will suffer: Individuals may be exploited or may seek to exploit the organizations, or both. 4. A good fit between individuals and organizations benefits both because peo-ple gain meaningful and satisfying work—and organizations receive the talent and energy they need to thrive. (pp. 250-251). 3.Theory X: The assumption that the average human being has an inherent dislike of work that most people must be threatened to get them to put forth adequate effort, and that people prefer to be directed and to avoid responsibility. (pp. 267-268). 4. Theory Y: The assumption that work is as natural as play, that worksers can exercise selfdirection and self-control and that imagination, ingenuity, and creativity are widespread. (pp. 267-268). Both types are necessary (a mix of each theory). Also, employees will live up to whatever theory the manager believes in. 5. POSDCoRB: Luther Gulick’s (1937, period of orthodoxy ideology of public administration) “Notes on the theory of organization”. Stands for the seven major functions of management: 1. Planning, which is working out in broad outline the things that need to be done and the methods for doing them to accomplish the purpose set for the enterprise.

2.Organizing, which is the establishment of the formal structure of authority through which work subdivisions are arranged, defined, and coordinated for the defined objective. 3. Staffing, which is the whole personnel function of bringing in and training the staff and maintaining favorable conditions of work. 4. Directing, which is the continuous task of making decisions and embodying them in specific and general orders and instructions and serving as the leader of the enterprise. 5. Coordinating, which is the all-important duty of interrelating the various parts of the work. 6. Reporting, which is keeping those to whom the executive is responsible in-formed as to what is going on, which thus includes keeping him- or herself and his or her subordinates informed through records, research, and inspection. 7. Budgeting, with all that goes with budgeting in the form of fiscal planning, accounting, and control (p. 225). Gulick helped shape a critical distinction in orthodox public administration: that the study of management and administration was to be focused on the role of upper-level management. (p. 225). 6. Scientific Management: A systematic approach to managing that seeks the “one best way” of Accomplishing any given task by discovering the fastest most efficient and least fatiguing production method. This developed the staff concept, which created a specific unit in the larger organization whose primary responsibility was to think and plan, to ponder over innovations and plan for their implementation. (p. 220). Frederick Winslow Taylor became the acknowledged father of the scientific management movement. (p. 221). Taylor’s comprehensive statement of scientific management principles was focused on what he called the “duties of management”: 1. Replacing traditional, rule-of-thumb methods of work accomplishment with systematic, more scientific methods of measuring and managing individual work elements. 2. The scientific study of the selection and sequential development of workers to ensure optimal placement of workers into work roles. 3. Obtaining the cooperation of workers to ensure full application of scientific principles. 4. Establishing logical divisions within work roles and responsibilities between workers and management. (p. 222). 7. Formal groups: Formal groups are officially created by a larger organization, usually for the purpose of accomplishing tasks. Employees are assigned to formal groups based on their position in the organization. There are two basic types of formal groups: command groups (supervisors) and task groups (short lived, composed of employees to complete one project). (pp. 252-253). 8. Informal groups: Informal groups are made up of individuals who have spontaneously developed relationships and patterns of interactions in work situations. Included here are employees who associate voluntarily, primarily to satisfy social needs. Their norms, values, beliefs, and expectations have significant impacts on work-related behavior and attitudes. (p.

253). This has to do with the organizational behavior of an administration. Both groups are essential to a healthy administration. 9. Total Quality Management (TQM): A phrase for quality control in its most expanded sense of a total and continuing concern for quality in the production of goods and services. Process to ensure that all aspects of an organization are performing at an optimal level (p. 294). Created by W. Edwards Deming (1950s). (p. 302). The goal was to create long-term quality solutions (p. 304). Started out at statistical quality control. He made a guide to achieve TQM: 1. Create constancy of purpose for improvement of products and services. (A long-term focus is thus essential.) 2. Adopt the new philosophy. (Be prepared for a total transformation.) 3. Cease dependence on mass inspections. (Quality must be built in; defects must be prevented rather than detected.) 4. End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag alone. (Low bids lead to low quality. Long-term relationships must be established with single suppliers.) 5. Improve constantly and forever the system of production and service. (Continuous improvement becomes a philosophy, not just a goal.) 6. Institute training. (Training at all organizational levels is a necessity, not an option.) 7. Adopt and institute leadership. (Managers must lead, not supervise.) 8. Drive out fear. (All employees must feel secure enough to express ideas and ask questions.) 9. Break down barriers between staff areas. (Work in organizations is inherently teamwork.) 10. Eliminate slogans, exhortations, and targets for the workforce. (Problems are caused by the system, not by individuals. Posters and slogans tend to create resentment.) 11. Eliminate numerical quotas for the workforce and numerical goals for people in management. (Production quotas yield defective products; replace work standards with intelligent leadership.) 12. Remove barriers that rob people of pride of workmanship. (The individual performance appraisal is a barrier, not an aid, to productivity.) 13. Encourage education and self-improvement for everyone. (Education never ends— for anybody at any level of the organization.) 14. Take action to accomplish the transformation. (Both top-management and employee commitment is essential.) (pp. 303-304). 10. Management by Objectives (MBO): an approach to managing, the hallmark of which is a mutual setting—by both organizational subordinate and superior—of measurable goals to be accomplished by an individual or team over a set period of time (p. 295). the specification of clear and measurable organizational objectives (i.e., management by objectives), which is the essence of strategic management (p. 298). These are the six features that identify a strategic, as opposed to a nonstrategic, management approach: 1. The identification of objectives to be achieved in the future (these are often announced in a vision statement)

2. The adoption of a time frame (or “planning horizon”) in which these objec-tives are to be achieved 3. A systematic analysis of the current circumstances of an organization, espe-cially its capabilities 4. An assessment of the environment surrounding the organization—both now and within the planning horizon 5. The selection of a strategy for the achievement of desired objectives by a future date, often comparing various alternatives 6. The integration of organizational efforts around this strategy (p. 328). 11. Zero-based Budgeting: A budgeting process that is, first and foremost, a rejection of the incremental decision-making model of budgeting. It demands a re-justification of the entire budget submission (from ground zero) (p. 288). For example, Jimmy Carter promised, if elected president, to implement zero-based budgeting. He was, and he did—but then his successor, Ronald Reagan, used an executive order to abolish zero-based budgeting for the federal government on his first day in office (p. 299). It started out as a really good idea that a lot of administrations were using, but it quickly became less useful and problematic. Created by Verne B. Lewis in 1952. (p. 483). In large part, ZBB failed because the conditions that had prevailed for most of the previous budgeting systems reforms had changed. In an era of acute resource scarcity, ZBB had little utility because there was little real chance that funding could be provided for any program growth (p. 484). 12. Input measure: In evaluating efficiency, selecting from among the many possible input/output ratios is troublesome. A considerable danger exists in selecting only certain input and output variables because a single efficiency measure may be, in truth, a meaningless or oversimplified measure of performance. (p. 301). This is whatever goes into the organization for productivity management. This can be input from employees, employers, financial input, presidential input, input from other organizations, etc. the input helps decide what the output is going to be. No good input equals no good output. 13. Output measure: Another way of stating this problem is that from the variety of available productivity measures, those selected must differentiate between intermediate outputs (outputs used by other members of the organization) and final outputs (those absorbed by the outside environment) and between staff and line functions (some individuals/units perform support functions whose impact can be assessed only in terms of increased performance of line departments) (p. 301). Output is what you get out of your administration. This has to do with managing productivity so the goal is to be productive with the least amount of costs. You want a high output with low costs. The output depends on the input and other factors (such as the type of outputs used). 14. Efficiency measure: Organizations that provide public services often have multiple and sometimes intangible outputs. In evaluating efficiency, selecting from among the many possible input/output ratios is troublesome. A considerable danger exists in selecting only certain input and output variables because a single efficiency measure may be, in truth, a meaningless or oversimplified measure of performance (p. 301). Productivity is, in essence, a measure of the work efficiency of an individual, a work unit, or a whole organization. (p. 300). In past years, managers could sometimes obfuscate discussion of the efficiency of public sector

organizations by references to unique characteristics, measurement difficulties, and the complexity of public sector life. While there is a measure of truth in all of these as reasons for why assessing the efficiency of public sector organizations is difficult, it is also true that we now have, through benchmarking and studies of comparative performance, a good deal more data to consider—especially in those parts of the public sector where measurements and comparisons are easiest—that is, where “hard,” measurable outputs exist. (p. 336). 15. Outcome measure: For example, according to House Bill 2009, passed by the Texas State Legislature in 1991, all state agencies must use strategic plans as the basis for developing their “requests for legislative appropriations, and measure agency effectiveness by the outcomes and outputs they achieve.” (p. 332). How public, private, and nonprofit organizations compare with each other. Strategic benchmarking is seldom industry focused. It moves across industries and cities to determine the best-in-class strategic outcomes. (p. 337). The Government Performance Results Act requires agencies to justify their budget requests on the basis of the results or outcomes to be achieved. (p. 488). 16. Purposes of strategic planning: Indeed, the essence of strategic planning—the heart of strategic management—has always been done, especially in a military context, where it began. (p. 326). Strategic benefit (a qualitative improvement in the long-term position, particularly vis-à-vis the enemy) or tactical benefit (that is, a shorter-term move designed to win the problems—the fighting—of the day and create a better position for the next day’s battle). (p. 328). 3 steps: assess the present situation, deciding what the future situation should be, determining what must be done to get there. A commitment to long term rational planning. (p. 332). Uses best practices (look and copy the competitor), benchmarking (systematically compares work processes with those of competitors or with best practices in an industry) and management score cards (tracking the individual units or functions of a large organization) (pp. 335-338). Strategic planning should not be equated with strategic management because strategic management often occurs without formal strategic planning. Strategic planning, however, is meaningless without strategic management. (p. 352). 17. Stakeholders involved in strategic planning & how they are reached: for departments to be on the same page they need a strategic plan. The purpose is to provide a road map so each division can know where it fits in the larger picture. It places stakeholders on the same page with the same vision, mission, plans, goals, and objectives. Everyone needs to be working towards the same goal. Stakeholders are: the public (citizens), community groups and leaders, elected officials, city administrators, city employees, surrounding government’s city officials. We reach them through citizen priority surveys, business retention survey, focus groups (multiple not just one), employee priority surveys, and public hearings. We get their input into the vision and planning process for the city as a whole and their division. What do they see as the top priority for our government? Safety? Education? Environment? What do businesses need to say in the city? Where do you see the city in the future? What do employees prioritize for each division throughout the government? Town hall meetings, get a pulse of what’s going on in the community. Downsides: people self-select to be involved. The sample is not random. But it does give you some input. (pp. 327-334).

18. Components of a strategic plan – the process: These are the six features that identify a strategic, as opposed to a nonstrategic, management approach: 1. The identification of objectives to be achieved in the future (these are often announced in a vision statement) 2. The adoption of a time frame (or “planning horizon”) in which these objectives are to be achieved 3. A systematic analysis of the current circumstances of an organization, especially its capabilities 4. An assessment of the environment surrounding the organization—both now and within the planning horizon 5. The selection of a strategy for the achievement of desired objectives by a future date, often comparing various alternatives 6. The integration of organizational efforts around this strategy (p. 328). 19. How strategic plan and operational plan fit together: from the grand strategic (the national policymaking) level to the strategic (the highest organizational level) to the operational (the planning or administrative) level to the tactical (the service delivery) level. Each level accepts strategy from above but uses discretion to create sub-strategies or levelspecific strategies that facilitate implementation. At the same time each level develops measurement and reporting techniques to assess how well the overall strategy is being implemented (p. 335). Big-idea stage: Grand strategic level; How-to-do-it stage: Strategic level; Detail-planning stage: Operational level; Implementation stage: Tactical level. (p. 335) talk about generality and specificity. 20. Leadership Theories: Leadership is the exercise of authority, whether formal or informal, in directing and coordinating the work of others. The formal, based on the authority of rank or office, and the informal, based on the willingness of others to give ser-vice to a person whose special qualities of authority they admire. (p. 361). Leadership cannot be bestowed on a person by a higher authority. Effective managers must also be leaders, and many leaders become managers, but the two sets of roles and functions differ. (p. 363). Legitimacy is a characteristic of a social institution, such as a government, a family, or an organization, whereby it has both a legal and a perceived right to make binding decisions. He defines three essential functions of leaders or executives: 1. To provide a system of communication 2. To promote the securing of essential efforts 3. To formulate and define the purposes and goals of an organization (p. 363). 21. Leadership power: The power that a leader possesses implies a hierarchy of control of stronger over weaker. J. R. P. French and B. Raven, in “The Bases of Social Power,” suggest that there are five major bases of power: (1) expert power, which is based on the perception that the leader possesses some special knowledge or expertise; (2) referent power, which is based on the follower’s liking, admiring, or identifying with the leader; (3) reward power, which is based on the leader’s ability to mediate rewards for the follower;

(4) legitimate power, which is based on the follower’s perception that the leader has the legitimate right or authority to exercise influence over him or her; and (5) coercive power, which is based on the follower’s fear that noncompliance with the leader’s wishes will lead to punishment. Subsequent research on these power bases has indicated that the first two (expert and referent power) are more positively related to subordinate performance and satisfaction than the last three (reward, legitimate, and coercive power). (p. 361). 22. Types of leaders and examples: A transformational leader is one with the ability to change an embedded organizational culture by creating a new vision for the organization and marshalling the appropriate support to make that vision the new reality. (p. 368). Effective leaders have long known the importance of instilling a winning optimism in their followers. (p. 369). Structural rigidity often causes managers to over manage—to lead too much. Micromanage is the pejorative term for supervising too closely. (p. 370). Moral leadership: Thus it is moving people in new directions—taking them to places where they did not know they wanted or needed to go—that is the essence of leaders...