HUMAN PSYCHOLOGY ONE PDF

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APPLIED PSYCHOLOGYConcept of psychologyIntroduction to psychologyThe word psychology literally means, "Study of the soul". It derives from Ancient Greek: "ψυχή" (psyche, meaning "breath", "spirit", or "soul"); and "-λογία" (-logia, translated as "study of"). Psychology is defined as the scientific s...

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APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY Concept of psychology Introduction to psychology The word psychology literally means, "Study of the soul". It derives from Ancient Greek: "ψυχή" (psyche, meaning "breath", "spirit", or "soul"); and "-λογία" (-logia, translated as "study of"). Psychology is defined as the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes /The science of behavior and mental processes. Psychology studies WHO and WHAT we are, WHY we act and think in a particular manner and what is our potential as an individual. Definition of common terminologies (a) Behavior Any response or activity of an organism. It can either be simple or complex; overt or covert; conscious or unconscious; voluntary or involuntary; rational or irrational (b)Mental process

Also known as mental function or cognitive functions These are all the things that individuals can do with their minds. These include perception, memory, thinking (such as ideation, imagination, belief, reasoning, etc.), volition, and emotion. © Attitude A person’s mindset at any given point in time, it does not always remain constant or match behaviour. (d) Intelligence One’s ability to learn from situation, add knowledge and problem solve. (e) Personality A person’s pattern of thinking acting or feeling (f) Cognition refers to the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought,

g) Intellect A term used in studies of the human mind, and refers to the ability of the mind to come to correct conclusions about what is true or false, (h) Consciousness Awareness of external or internal exsistance

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History of psychology The history of psychology as a scholarly study of the mind and behaviour dates back to the Ancient Greeks. Psychology borders on various other fields including, physiology, neuroscience, artificial intelligence, sociology, anthropology, as well as philosophy and other components of the humanities. Psychology was a branch of philosophy until 1879, when psychology developed as an independent scientific discipline in Germany and the United States. Psychology as a selfconscious field of experimental study began in 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research in Leipzig Germany. He is regarded as the father of experimental psychology. Other important early contributors to the field of psychology include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in the study of memory), William James (the American father of pragmatism), and Ivan Pavlov (father of classical conditioning). Stanley Hall brought scientific pedagogy to the United States from Germany in the early 1880s. John Dewey's educational theory of the 1890s was another hallmark in the development of psychology. In the 1890s, Hugo Münsterberg began writing about the application of psychology to industry, law, and other fields. Lightner Witmer established the first psychological clinic in the 1890s. James McKeen Cattell generated the first program of mental testing in the 1890s. Later in 1900s, psychology became a new independent science that was systematically organized into different schools of thought.

Perspective of psychology

The biological/Neuroscience perspective It proposes that behavior is determined by biological factors like genes and hormones

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The psychoanalytic perspective Originated with the work of Sigmund Freud. It emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and interpersonal relationships to explain human behavior and to treat people suffering from mental illnesses. Behavioral Perspective: It focuses on learned behaviors I.e how behaviors are learned and reinforced. John Watson founded behaviorism in the early 1900's. Watson emphasized the scientific study of observable behaviors. Our behaviors depend on associations we have made in the past (learned) rather than the study of subjective mental process. Humanistic Perspective: Influenced by the work of humanists Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. Emphasizes the role of motivation on thought and behavior. Cognitive Perspective: Focuses on mental processes such as memory, thinking, problem solving, language and decision-making. (How people understand and think about the world. Social cultural Perspective: Maintains that behavior and mental processes are shaped not only by prior learning experiences (the behavioral perspective) or intra-psychic forces (for instance, the unconscious) but also by the social or cultural context.

HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT • •

Growth is an increase in size of a living being or any of its parts occurring in process of development Human development is a lifelong process of physical, behavioral, cognitive, and emotional growth and change.

Development is described in three domains Physical Domain:  body size, body proportions, appearance, brain development, motor development, perception capacities, physical health. Cognitive Domain: • Thought processes and intellectual abilities including attention, memory, problem solving, imagination, creativity, academic and everyday knowledge, metacognition, and language. Theories of development Psychoanalytical Theories • Are those influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud’s, who believed in the importance of unconscious mind and childhood experiences.

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• • •

Freuds contribution to developmental theory was his proposal that development occurs through a series of psychosexual stages. Erik Erikson expanded upon Freud’s ideas by proposing an 8 stages theory of psychosocial development. His theory focused on conflict that arise at different stages of development and, unlike Freud’s theory, Erikson described development throughout the life span.

Learning Theories • •

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Focuses on how the environment impacts behavior. Important learning processes include, classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning. In each behavior is shaped by the interaction between the individual and the environment

Cognitive theories Focuses on the development of mental process, skills and abilities. Jean Piaget created one of the most famous theories of cognitive development suggesting that children are not passive recipients of information. His theory counts for the step and sequence of children’s intellectual development.

FACTORS INFLUENCING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT There are several factors which directly or indirectly influence the growth and development of an organism.

1) • •

Heredity

Heredity is a biological process through which the transmission of physical and social characteristics takes place from parents to off-springs. It greatly influences height, weight and structure of the body, color of hair and eye, intelligence, aptitudes and instincts. (a) Before birth (prenatal) o Nutritional state of the mother o Infections affecting the mother like syphilis, German measles o Irradiations-exposure of mother to strong x-rays during early months of pregnancy o Mechanical injury to the fetus e.g a fall by the mother. o Mental health-emotional state of the mother o Alcohol use-Heavy drinking by pregnant women results in fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) (cluster of abnormalities) in children of mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy. o Smoking

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(b) During Labour and delivery o Complicated labour leading to fetal distress (brain damage) o Delivery by unskilled service providers (brain damage) o Infections during labour & delivery

(c) Following delivery o Nutritional status of the child o Infections o Customs and taboos prohibiting children from eating certain nutritious foods o Length of breast feeding o Emotional support (love, acceptance) lives.

Hormonal o Male hormones controls development in the direction of masculinity and female hormones toward feminist. o At puberty, these sex hormones promote the development of genital organs. o Lacking the gonads, individuals of either sex develop without strong sex characteristics. o Pituitary ("master gland“) stimulates other glands like adrenal and gonads. If this gland is over-active in childhood, the muscles and bones grow very rapidly and the individual may become a giant

2) o o o o

Sex

Sex acts as an important factor of growth and development. There is difference in growth and development of boys and girls. The boys are generally taller and courageous than the girls The functions of boys and girls are also different in nature.

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Nutrition o The human body requires an adequate supply of calories for its normal growth at different phases of development. o Malnutrition has adverse effect like underweight, stunted growth etc

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Race

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o The racial factor has a great influence on height, weight, color, features and body constitution. o A child of white race will be white & tall

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Emotions

o Relationships with significant other persons, mother, father, sibling, peers & teacher play a vital role in the emotional, social, & intellectual development of the child. o If emotional deprivation continues over a period of time, the children may have repeated illness, become emotionally ill, or die at an early age.

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Exercise

Exercises build the strength of the muscle due to better circulation and oxygen supply.

8)Social economic o Children from different socioeconomic levels vary in average body size at all ages. o The upper level families being always more advanced. 9)Family size The reasons behind this are better nutrition, better facilities, regular meals, sleep,and exercise Children from different socioeconomic levels vary in average body size at all ages. The upper level families being always more advanced. o The reasons behind this are better nutrition, better facilities, regular meals, sleep, and exercise

10) Drugs

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Alcohol Tobacco 11) Chronic illness

Chronic illnesses and congenital diseases of any type may have effects on growth & development e.g growth retardation. 12) age Eldery mothers Young mothers

LIFE STAGES/ LIFE SPAN STAGES 1.Prenatal Period This is the period from conception to birth Life begins with the meeting of two cells, a sperm and an egg (ovum) in the fallopian tube forming a zygote. It takes approximately 266 days for zygote to become a fetus ready to be born.

Phases of prenatal period o Pre-natal development is divided into 3 The period of the zygote (Germinal period)

o The period of the embryo o The period of the fetus (a).Period of the zygote (Germinal Period) First 2 weeks after conception – This includes  The creation of zygote.  The continued cell division and  The attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall.  24 to 36 hours after fertilization-the male (sperm) and the female (egg) Chromosome unite.  The fertilized ovum, zygote divides into two (2) cells.  Cell multiplication continues.  6-7 days – blastocyst attaches to the wall of uterus.  11-14 days – blastocyst invades into uterine wall and becomes implanted in it (implantation). (b). Embryonic Stage   

2-8 weeks after conception In this stage, the Zygote, become embryo. The following developments take place: o Cell differentiation intensifies 7

o o o o

Life-support system for the embryo develop and Organs appear Body structures and internal organs develop Three (3) layers begin to form in the embryo: a. Ectoderm: Outermost layer becomes the nervous system, sensory receptors (eyes, ears, nose) and skin parts (nails, hair). b. Mesoderm: Middle layer becomes circulatory, skeletal, muscular, excretory and reproductive systems). c. Endoderm: Inner layer develops into the digestive and respiratory systems-lungs

NB: Most of the organs found in a mature human are in place • This process of organ formation during the first two months of pre-natal development is called organogenesis. ©. Fetal Stage th From the 9 wk to 9 months after conception Growth and development continue dramatically during this period. The details of the developmental process are as follows (Santrock, 2002): a). 3 months after conception –fetus has become active, moves its arms, legs and head. The genital can now be identified as male or female. b) 4 months –Growth spurt occurs in the body’s lower parts; pre-natal reflexes are stronger c) 5 months-structures of the skin (finger nails, toe nails) have formed; fetus is more active. d) 6 months after conception –Eyes and eyelids are completely formed; fine layer of head covers the head; grasping reflex is present and irregular movements occur. e) 7 months after conception – fetus is about 16 long and weighs 3 pounds. f) 8 and 9 months after conception – fetus grows longer and gains substantial weight, about 5 pounds. 2.Neonatal Period (birth -28 days) Survival reflexes:

o Breathing-repetitive inhalation and expiration o Eye blink-closing and blinking the eyes o Papillary reflex-constriction of pupils to bright light and dilation to dark surroundings o Rooting-turning the head in the direction of touch o Sucking-sucking on objects placed into the mouth o Swallowing-stimulation of the palate causes swallowing Premitive Reflex

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o Babinski-fanning and then curling the toes when the bottom of the foot it stroked o Palmer grasping-curling the fingers around the objects that touch the baby’s palm

o Moro-loud noise will cause the baby to throw his arms outwards, arch the back and the bring the arms towards each other as if to hold on something. o Swimming- when immersed in water, will display movements of arms and legs and involuntarily hold its breath o Stepping- when held upright with their feet touching on flat surface, will step as if to walk • • • • •

Birth weight: 2.5-3.5 kgs Height: 45-50 cm Head circumference: 35-38 cm Communicates by crying Develops preference to certain sounds

3. Infant (1month -1 year.)

o At 1 month o Tries to lift head while lying o Responds to sound by stopping all At 2 months o o o o o

activitiesTurns head and eyes towards sound Eyes follow a moving person Appearance of a social smile Lifts head at short distance while in prone position Posterior fontanel closes

o o o o o

At 6 months Weight is double birth weight-7kgs Height-70cm Has full head control Can sit without support Imitate/try to speak by making sounds st Irruption/cutting of 1 tooth

At 9 months o Crawls when laid on his abdomen o Can stand with minimal support e.g with support of furniture o Recognizes between strangers and familiar faces of family members

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At 12 months o o o o o

Weight is about 3x birth weight Stands without support Walks with some support Responds to his name Begins to acknowledge authority by listening to his mother forbidding him from doing certain things

4. Toddler (1-3 years) This is such an exciting time in the growth of your child! Their first smile, first word, learning to roll over, reaching out to explore their world and many more! Language Development In our section on 0 -12 months we explored the readiness skills your child was born with to learn language. They have spent a considerable amount of time listening to language all around them and are beginning to experiment with their own attempts to see how they can control the world around them. Development happens at different rates for each child, however there are expected ranges and patterns of development that we know children begin to exhibit as language emerges. At 18 months:    

Has about 8-10 meaningful words Follows simple commands such as “give me” or “come here” Recognizes words for common objects or people Is using a variety of sounds when babbling or when imitating words

At 24 months:   

Is combining 2 words together into meaningful phrases Points to pictures when named in familiar books Is acquiring new vocabulary every month 10

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Is able to identify basic body parts when named

At 36 months:    

Has a word for almost everything in their environment. Uses most sounds correctly in words and phrases Plays with other children, takes turns, engage in back and forth dialogue Answers simple wh-questions

Play Skills Play is the avenue through which children learn to use both verbal and nonverbal language, explore social interactions and learn the skills needed to engage with others. Play builds the foundation for a lifetime of learning. A child struggling with play can be a sign of underlying issues including language development, sensory regulation, social-emotional development and even fine and gross motor development! Play is your child’s work and the avenue through which we need to teach.

At 18 months:    

Imitates adult behavior and routines Engages in greetings and salutations (good bye, hello) Beginning to engage in pretend play (hugs doll, gives doll a drink) Has toy preferences

At 24 months:    

Plays alongside other children, actively observes other children playing Uses similar looking objects for object needed Actively engages in imaginative play with familiar objects Shows interest in others and attempts to interact in play

At 36 months:   

Understands basic social rules for turn taking, sharing with support Actively engages in and initiates pretend play Understands and expresses emotions

Gross Motor Development Along with language and play, your child now has access to their world through more independent movement. The development of Gross Motor skills are movements that require whole body movement and are the foundation for their participation in daily play activities. The development of eye-hand coordination skills such as ball skills (throwing, catching, kicking) are important foundational skills to educational tasks as well. 11

At 18 months:    

Climb and stand on a chair Walk alone. Walk down stairs holding rail or your hand, one step at a time. Walk into a large ball as if to kick it

At 24 months:    

Walk with more direction to their movements Kick a ball forward without losing his/her balance Walk up and down stairs alone while holding onto a railing Jump and stand on tiptoes

At 36 months:    

Jump and/or walk backward Begin to pedal a tricycle Run without falling Play on swings, ladders and other playground equipment with a fair amount of ease

Fine Motor Development As your child begins to dress themselves these skills will impact their ability to open and close buttons, snaps and zippers. Coordination to tie their shoes is built in the early years while they are developing hand-eye coordination and the use of their hands together. At 18 months:    

Point to pictures in books by isolating his/her index finger Build a tower using 2 blocks Hold a crayon with a full fist and scribble Use both hands together to put in/take out/stack objects

At 24 months:     

Turn single pages in a book Begin to hold crayons using the thumb and fingers Use one hand more often than the other for most activities Stringing ½” size beads and begin putting large blocks/legos together Put on some items of clothing with supervision

At 36 months:

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Snip with scissors and start to cut along a line Hold crayons with thumb and finger (not fist) Paint with movement in the wrist, imitating circular, vertical and horizontal strokes Roll, pound, squeeze, and pull clay Dress self with supervision

Feeding Skills During this stage your child is beginning to develop likes and dislikes, learning to try new things and is refining their ability to ...