Introduction to Psychology Notes PDF

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Introduction to PsychologyPsychological PerspectivesPsychodynamicBehaviour is the result of unconscious processes, motivation, and early experiences. This perspective uses psychoanalytic therapy (inferring underlying wishes, motives, and fears from an individual’s conscious, verbalized thoughts and ...

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Introduction to Psychology Psychological Perspectives Psychodynamic Behaviour is the result of unconscious processes, motivation, and early experiences. This perspective uses psychoanalytic therapy (inferring underlying wishes, motives, and fears from an individual’s conscious, verbalized thoughts and behaviour).

Behaviourist Behaviour is learnt and selected by its environmental consequences. Operant conditioning (learning through rewards and punishments for behaviour). An individual makes an association between a behaviour and a response.

Humanistic Behaviour and experiences are shaped by the need to self-actualise (fulfil one’s inner potential). Person-centred therapy focusses on empathy, acceptance and respect for the individual.

Cognitive Behaviour is the product of information processing, storage, transformation, and retrieval of data. Computer modelling examines how individuals perceive, process and retrieve information.

Evolutionary Psychological processes reflect evolutionary process and natural selection. Cross-comparison deducts explanations for traits and behaviour from environmental factors.

Big Five Personality Traits Openness The tendency to be open to new experiences, creative and adventurous.

Conscientiousness The tendency to pay attention to detail, prepare for events and be organised.

Extraversion The tendency to be sociable, active and willing to take risks.

Agreeableness The tendency to be agreeable, altruistic, modest and empathetic.

Neuroticism The tendency to be emotionally unstable.

Research Methods Observation This is observing behaviour without direct interference, allowing information to be collected about a phenomenon through naturalist observation.

Correlation This investigates whether there is an association between two or more variables. This means we cannot infer causality (one variable does not cause another), but predictions can be made based on the relationship. There can be either a negative correlation or positive correlation, which may be significant.

Experimental This is the only method which can show causality and is one of the most important methods for scientific research. This method does however have many downfalls, such as sampling bias (unrepresentative of a population), experimenter effects (interference – accidental or otherwise), confounding (difficulty separating individual variable effects), demand characteristics (placebo effects – abnormal behaviour due to knowledge of experimentation), and ceiling and floor effects (misrepresentations of possibilities in real life).

Within-Subject Design All participants are assigned to all levels of the experimental conditions and the control condition.

Between-Subject Design Different participants are assigned to different experimental conditions.

Variables Independent Variable (IV) A variable which is manipulated by the researcher deliberately and systematically to measure the impact on the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable (DV) A variable which is measured by the researcher, changes are recorded.

Predictor Variable A variable which predicts the outcome of something or another variable.

Control Variable A variable which is kept the same during the experiment.

Extraneous Variable Any variable (apart from the independent variable) which influences the dependent variable and confound the findings.

Psychological Effects The Pygmalion Effect This is the phenomenon where others’ expectations of a person affect their performance positively.

The Golem Effect The opposite of the Pygmalion Effect, the phenomenon where other’s expectations of a person affect their performance negatively.

Social Facilitation This is an improvement in performance of a simple task when in the presence of others.

The Co-Action Effect This is an improvement in performance when in the presence of others completing the same task.

The Audience Effect This is a change in performance when there is a passive audience present.

The Bystander Effect This is a social phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present.

Diffusion of Responsibility The presence of others supplies an opportunity to transfer the responsibility onto someone else.

Audience Inhibition The presence of others makes people self-conscious of an intended action.

Social Influence Other onlookers serve as models for action if others seem unworried then it could be assumed that the situation is less serious than if others were clearly concerned.

Strangers vs Friends If onlookers are strangers, then helping is inhibited.

Bioethical Principles Respect for Autonomy The patient has ultimate decision-making responsibility for their own treatment. This means that we cannot impose treatment on an individual for whatever reason – except in cases where that individual is deemed to be unable to make autonomous. To modern sensibilities, the principle that a patient has the right to choose what happens to their body seems straight-forward. But it is important to remember that historically this has not always been the case, and even today some patients defer all decision-making to the “wise doctor” – even if they do not feel comfortable with their treatment plan. And so, it is more important today than ever to bear the autonomy of the patient in mind and ensure patients are actively involved in their diagnosis and treatment.

Beneficence We have a moral duty to promote the course of action that they believe is in the best interests of the patient. This is beneficence.

Often, however, beneficence is simplified to mean that we must do good for their patients – although thinking of it in such a simplistic way can land you in trouble.

Non-Maleficence We have a duty to do no harm or allow harm to be caused to a patient through neglect. Any consideration of beneficence is likely, therefore, to involve an examination of non-maleficence.

Justice When considering whether an action is ethical or otherwise, we must consider whether it is compatible with the law and the rights of the individual, and whether it is fair and balanced from a societal perspective. We must ensure that no one is unfairly disadvantaged when it comes to access to healthcare.

Conformity This is changing attitudes of behaviour to accommodate the standards of peers or groups.

Informational Influence This is conformity due to thinking others’ show the correct way of responding.

Conversion (Informational) This is conformity due to the belief that others are right, therefore the individual changes their private opinion to match the groups.

Normative Influence This is conformity due to a desire to be liked.

Compliance (Normative) This is conformity due to a concern about how the individual will be perceived by others while privately disagreeing.

Public vs Private Responses given in publish are more likely to show conformity than responses given in private.

Group Membership When an individual feels they are accepted in a group, they are more likely to conform.

Group Consistency This only occurs in unambiguous situations. If all individuals give a single answer, conformity increases. If individuals give different answers, conformity decreases.

Famous Psychological Experiments Milgram Obedience Experiment Obedience is defined as compliance with authority and was investigated in Milgram’s experiment. Using confederates, Milgram proved that most people will obey, without limitations of conscience, when they believe an order comes from a legitimate authority. This can be affected by: - Immediacy / Proximity of the victim - Authority of the experimenter - Peer pressure - Cross-cultural differences

Bobo Doll Study This is a study that illustrated social learning of aggression, as children watched an adult either be cruel or kind to a doll, and which they repeated the same behaviour demonstrated.

Conformity Experiment Stanford Prison Experiment

Motives Achievement Motive This is the need to carry out something difficult to overcome obstacles and reach a high standard.

Motive to Avoid Failure This is the fear of making mistakes or taking risks, often leading to anxiety.

Motive to Avoid Success This is the motive to avoid being disliked by being ahead of everyone else.

Achievement Goals Performance Goals These are motives to achieve at a level, usually a socially defined standard. The emphasis is on the outcome, success or failure in meeting a standard.

Performance-Approach Goals This is where people are motivated to reach a goal, and is linked to positive reinforcement and positive emotions, e.g. pride and excitement. This is about obtaining a concrete positive outcome.

Performance-Avoidance Goals This is where people are motivated by the fear of failure, and is linked to punishment, negativereinforcement and negative emotions, e.g. anxiety, guilt, shame and sadness. This is about avoiding a concrete negative outcome.

Mastery Goals These are motives to increase competence, mastery or skill. They are more interested in development and in the long run they develop more intrinsic interest in the material.

Self-Regulation Do not suppress thoughts or feelings. While this may seem like common sense, it only makes you more likely to think about it (rebound). Instead, make a list to turn goals into actions. Break major goals down to make it more manageable. Plan out how to reach your goals and when you will do it, and account for obstacles. This will help to overcome procrastination.

Action Orientation (Action O) This is fast and definitive procedures when responding to challenges. They can regulate their emotions, thoughts and behaviour. They focus on short term goals, thinking in the present moment.

State Orientation (State O) This is slow analysis and assessment when responding to challenges. They are unable to regulate their emotions, thoughts and behaviours. They focus only on long term goals, thinking of the past and future instead of the present.

Willpower Hot (Go) Emotional, fast, develops early, stimulus control.

Cold (Know) Cognitive, slow, develops late, self-control.

How to Generate Willpower First, obscure the stimulus (tempting object) by covering it or putting it away. Second, generate distraction by going for a walk, calling something or meditating. Last, reconstruct the stimulus in a bad light – make it undesirable.

Helplessness Learned Helplessness Learned helplessness is a phenomenon where an organism is conditioned to expect pain, suffering or discomfort without a way to escape it. Eventually they stop trying to avoid the pain even if there is a real opportunity to escape it.

Negative Events If we attribute negative events to causes that are stable, global or internal, we get more depressed and expect negative outcomes. Therefore, it is better to attribute events to changeable causes, such as effort. Negative events may not lead to depression, it is a person’s recovery from negative events which makes a difference. We are more helpless when multiple similar negative events occur, and when negative events occur close together.

Turning Helplessness into Hope First, think of alternatives – do not get stuck – then make effective and specific plans. Counter negative expectancies and have future incentives. This will help build purpose and meaning.

The Self and Wellbeing

Conflict between our selves has been shown to lead to anxiety, depression, and less life-satisfaction.

Perceived Self This is how a person sees themselves and how others see them.

Real / Actual Self This is how a person really is.

Ideal Self This is who a person wants to be.

Self-Discrepancy Even when people have the same specific goals, they often vary in how they stand for their goals. Some people represent their goals as hopes or aspirations, while others represent goals as duties or obligations. The difference between these is why people have different emotional reactions to the same negative life events. This is a mismatch between the make-up of the actual self, ideal self, and ought self.

Ideal Discrepancy This is who we like to be and has been shown to lead to depression.

Ought Discrepancy This is who we feel we ought to be – has been shown to lead to anxiety.

Possible Selves These are the selves one believes one might become in the future. Everyone has both positive images of who they want to be, and negative images of who they want to avoid becoming.

Self-Actualisation The psychological process aimed at maximising an individual’s potential for personal growth. This is innate and positive where people aim to realise their full potential and grow.

Flow This is a state of concentration / complete absorption with the activity at hand and the situation. It’s a state where people are so involved in an activity that nothing else seems to matter. Flow correlates with happiness and long-term well-being.

Cross-Cultural Psychology Experiences are central to the development of psychological processes, and cultures provide people with certain kinds of experiences. Thoughts, feelings and actions are culturally universal or variable.

General Psychology This says that all human psychology is universally experienced in similar ways. The mind runs independently of context and content.

Cross-Cultural Psychology This says that the mind is shaped by its experiences, and cultures differ in the kinds of experiences that they provide. Psychology is culture; we see, feel, think and act in ways that are culturally normative. Everyone is multicultural and these cultures intersect.

Human Rights and Indigenous Issues To survive in diverse environments, humans must rely on culturally transmitted knowledge, abilities and skills. Humans are an ultra-cultural species, meaning we live in a world governed by social rules we need to acquire. We are ever accumulating cultural elements which lead to cognitive processes for cultural learning, behavioural repertoire, adaptive principles, tools, techniques and bodies of knowledge.

The Culture Cycle Individuals This is our own beliefs, attitudes, morals and behaviour.

Interactions These are our conversations and interactions with people and other objects.

Institutions This includes schools, universities, governments and professional organisations.

Ideas These include questions, answers, creative or logical.

W. E. I. R. D. Most people are not W.E.I.R.D. (western, educated, industrialised, rich, democratic). The researchers of most psychology studies use W.E.I.R.D. participants and then assume that their findings can be generalised to the other populations – and most of the world. Theories which appeared from empirical psychology are culturally limited, using observations of select Western populations, and using Western techniques. Empirical psychologists have failed to acknowledge the inherent cultural-specificity and hence subjectivity of their theories, thus denying the moral implications of applying their frameworks onto non-Western samples – leading to the oppression of marginalised groups and suppression of their voices. Empirical psychology was largely theory-focused and produced little practical knowledge of use to marginalised communities.

Declaration of Rights of Indigenous Peoples This was adopted by the UN in 2007, its purpose is to set a standard for the treatment of indigenous peoples that will undoubtably be a significant tool towards ending human rights violations against the planets indigenous people and aiding them in combating discrimination and marginalisation.

Theories of Ideologies in Post-Colonial Nations Indigenous people have experienced objective historical injustice, creating an ideology of Historical Recognition or Negation; beliefs that historical injustices experience by indigenous people in the colonial era are relevant/irrelevant in contemporary society. Indigenous peoples have a claim of undeniable nationality, creating an ideology of Symbolic Protection or Exclusion; beliefs that indigenous culture is relevant/irrelevant in representations of modern national identity.

Dark Due Model Sociohistorical Context Objective history of injustice experiences by the indigenous peoples and undeniable national category membership of indigenous peoples.

Dilemma / Dissonant to Resolve Inequality and asset ownership given history of injustice and projection of Europeans as national exemplar given membership of indigenous peoples.

Ideological Response Historical negation and symbolic exclusion.

Liberation Psychology This addresses economic and social problems in societies marked by inequality and aims for their transformational and fair development. This developed after an increased awareness of problems faced in Latin American from the 1950’s including widespread poverty, inequality and oppression. It was recognized that Western social sciences were unable to address these problems, prompting the development of a new, indigenous psychology which could address these issues. There were many political and intellectual influences on this, including the history of struggle between authoritarianism and democracy, new social science developments for indigenous societies, and nationalism and social expressions of identity. Liberation psychology began as a movement within the Roman Catholic Church in Latin America in the 1950s-1960s. It construes teachings of Jesus Christ in terms of a liberation from unjust economic, political or social conditions. It arose principally as a moral reaction to poverty caused by social injustice in Latin America. It was argued that psychology had only served the interests and requirements of dominant social groups and was fundamentally unable to criticise the system it supported. In order to develop a psychology of liberation, it was first necessary to achieve liberation of existing psychology.

Key Assertions Prevailing circumstances and belief systems don’t represent a natural order, but rather an order imposed by a particular group or culture. Psychologists must view power relations in historical contexts and become aware that oppression may be entrenched through invisible and deep-seated societal belief systems (often internalised) that rule out of concealment. They must then adapt their own research and practice to be contextually sensitive, and not assume psychological universality. All people have the capacity for empowerment; the oppressed or marginalised are not liberated by others, but through their own initiative. Liberation is a painstaking and ongoing construction, rather than a gift or static end-state: and as such it must and can only be driven by those in need of liberation. The role of the psychologist, then, is not to be a liberator, but to facilitate the process of reflection and transformation as a means to liberation.

Critical Pedagogy and Popular Education A concept developed by Paulo Freire which allows students to become active learners and participants in their own reality. He described traditional educational concepts as controlling students thinking and actions, inhibiting their creative power.

Process of Liberation All people have the capacity for empowerment Conscientisation

Problematisation and Denaturalisation

De-alienation

De-ideologisation

Prevaling beliefs do not represent natural order

Conscientisation T...