Unit 9 - Introduction to Psychology PDF

Preview

Summary

Access to Nursing (Adult) assignment 9: Introduction to Psychology...

Description

Introduction to Psychology

By Caroline Swif 12/07/2021

TERMS OF REFERENCE: This academic report will endeavour to show an understanding of an introduction to psychology. It will; explain what is meant by ‘The Scientific Method’, and explain the benefit of this in terms of the validity of psychological research; outline and discuss two research methods, experimental and non-experimental - field study and interview; explain Luke’s behaviour using two different psychological approaches – Behavioural and Biological (details provided in assessor guidance notes); discuss ‘The Pygmalion Effect’, and the importance of ethical guidelines for psychological research.

CONTENTS: 

PAGE 1: TITLE



PAGE 2: TERMS OF REFERENCE CONTENTS



PAGE 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD



PAGE 4: RESEARCH METHODS - Experimental - Non-Experimental



PAGE 5: PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES - Behavioural - Biological



PAGE 6: THE PYGMALION EFFECT



PAGE 7: CONCLUSION RECOMMENDATIONS



PAGE 8: REFERENCES



PAGE 9 - 10: BIBLIOGRAPHY

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: The research for this academic report was conducted using a variety of resources; ePearl course notes and extended learning material (provided by LearnDirect), websites, published online articles and journals, and books from the library. Additional information was also sourced by viewing video content found through online searches, across a variety of platforms.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD: ‘Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behaviour’ (Mcleod, 2019). It is imperative that psychological investigations be conducted as systematic, scientific studies, known as ‘The Scientific Method’, to determine the cause-and-effect relationship between two variables, and have those findings taken seriously. The Scientific Method begins with identifying a problem or question. Further data are then gathered, to increase understanding of said identified problem, or question, to formulate a hypothesis – an educated prediction made by researchers, of what they expect, or believe, the result of their study to be. Various research methods are used, experimental and non-experimental, to test this hypothesis, such as; completing questionnaires, holding interviews or conducting observations. These can be carried out in a laboratory or real-life setting, with or without participant awareness. An initial pilot study will precede any proposed study; ensuring it is robust, sound and fair; checking for possible flaws; allowing any necessary adjustments or improvements to be made. Once all research has been carried out, the data obtained is analysed and compared, and this knowledge is used to verify or falsify, support or oppose, the hypothesis. At this stage, the study will be reviewed by peers for its authenticity and to check ethical guidelines are satisfied. Only then, will there be potential for the study to be published. The validity of psychological research is determined by whether it is fit for purpose. A study that is internally valid must measure what it intended to measure. External validity refers to its accuracy laboratory settings allow for the manipulation of independent variables (cause), and the control of dependent variables (effect), however, a study that can only be proven in these settings, would be considered externally invalid as behaviours witnessed will not truly reflect that in real-life settings.

hypothesis is formed and tested. This methodology gathers data that corroborates or invalidates a cause-andeffect relationship (Lavery,

2017). Psychologists formulate a question that leads to a hypothesis. The hypothesis is usually a prediction that can be a plausible answer. Research methods assist in proving or disproving while accumulating data and comparing it to predictions made, forming a conclusion. Psychologists can use scientific methodology to conduct in-depth investigations, which is beneficial when challenging the hypothesis. Any areas

that require improvement and modification can be recognised. The scientific method is a conventional method that verifies and validates, using empirical data, experiments, or observations to reduce the risk of faults and provide valuable results. There must be a non-bias approach when conducting research and when it's repeated to review or duplicate. Some research methods allow the use of

sampling strategies, which is a simple way to study using an accurate statistical measure of a large population (Horton, 2019). Another advantage of using the scientific method is that researchers can control the independent variable that will affect the dependent variable that's tested and measured. Researchers must also consider any extraneous variables that may have an impact on the experiment. For example, the environment may affect the way

participants behave. A scientific method is a systematic approach to obtaining knowledge and research where a hypothesis is formed and tested. This methodology gathers data that corroborates or invalidates a cause-andeffect relationship (Lavery, 2017). Psychologists formulate a question that leads to a hypothesis. The hypothesis is usually a prediction that can be a plausible answer. Research methods assist in proving or

disproving while accumulating data and comparing it to predictions made, forming a conclusion. Psychologists can use scientific methodology to conduct in-depth investigations, which is beneficial when challenging the hypothesis. Any areas that require improvement and modification can be recognised. The scientific method is a conventional method that verifies and validates, using empirical data, experiments, or

observations to reduce the risk of faults and provide valuable results. There must be a non-bias approach when conducting research and when it's repeated to review or duplicate. Some research methods allow the use of sampling strategies, which is a simple way to study using an accurate statistical measure of a large population (Horton, 2019). Another advantage of using the scientific method is that

researchers can control the independent variable that will affect the dependent variable that's tested and measured. Researchers must also consider any extraneous variables that may have an impact on the experiment. For example, the environment may affect the way participants behave. A scientific method is a systematic approach to obtaining knowledge and research where a hypothesis is formed and tested. This methodology

gathers data that corroborates or invalidates a cause-andeffect relationship (Lavery, 2017). Psychologists formulate a question that leads to a hypothesis. The hypothesis is usually a prediction that can be a plausible answer. Research methods assist in proving or disproving while accumulating data and comparing it to predictions made, forming a conclusion. Psychologists can use scientific methodology to

conduct in-depth investigations, which is beneficial when challenging the hypothesis. Any areas that require improvement and modification can be recognised. The scientific method is a conventional method that verifies and validates, using empirical data, experiments, or observations to reduce the risk of faults and provide valuable results. There must be a non-bias approach when conducting research

and when it's repeated to review or duplicate. Some research methods allow the use of sampling strategies, which is a simple way to study using an accurate statistical measure of a large population (Horton, 2019). Another advantage of using the scientific method is that researchers can control the independent variable that will affect the dependent variable that's tested and measured. Researchers must also consider any extraneous variables that

may have an impact on the experiment. For example, the environment may affect the way participants behave

RESEARCH METHODS: Experimental Field studies are an experimental research method, conducted outside of a laboratory, whereby conditions of a natural occurrence are simulated as closely as possible, seeking to determine how one thing affects another, by manipulation of a stimuli. Fewer variables can be controlled in field study’s, namely extraneous variables, however, this study style yields far truer result as participants are usually unaware that they are being observed and so display natural behaviours - enhancing the external validity of the study, but, with less control over extraneous variables, the findings may also be bias. Darley and Latané’s field study, The Unresponsive Bystander in 1970, found that the greater number of people present, the less likely an individual would intervene to help someone in distress because of subconsciously diffused responsibility (Emeghara U, 2020). Non-Experimental An interview is a highly effective, non-experimental research method type used to obtain significant information. During an interview, a series of topic-specific questions will be presented by a researcher, to a participant, to answer. The information obtained will later be collated and used to test the hypothesis posed. Interviews can be structured or unstructured. Structured interviews generally consist of closed-ended questions, allowing the researcher to lead the agenda. This questioning format ensures answer content is standardised, improving their capacity for comparison, though, the depth of the answers given can consequently be restricted, causing true or relevant detail to be absent. Unstructured interviews allow the participant to respond freely, from their own point of view or experience, by asking open-ended questions, but can be difficult to replicate due to their organic style. The quality of the information acquired in unstructured interviews is dependent on the techniques used by the interviewer to extract necessary and useful information. Interviews can be a cumbersome process with results prone to bias.

PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES: Behavioural approach to psychology focuses on behaviour learned through external conditioning processes (operant, classical, social learning theory) with the idea learning is obtained as a result of the environment and/or consequences surrounding it. Operant conditioning is whereby positive and negative reinforcement are used to achieve a behaviour response. Classical conditioning is to learn by association; founded by Ivan Pavlov in 1897, when he conducted an experiment using his dogs showing how they would salivate (unconditioned response), when they were shown some meat (stimulus). Over time, Pavlov would ring a bell (neutral stimulus) as he gave the meat to the dogs. Next, he would then ring the bell without providing the dogs any meat and recognised they would salivate regardless (conditioned response) (Mcleod, 2018). Social learning theory suggests that behaviour is learned by vicarious reinforcement - combining operant and classical conditioning. Behavioural approach techniques used are objective, observable and measurable increasing their internal validity, conversely, they have usually been developed in laboratory settings so lack external validity when applied to real-life. In 1961, Albert Bandura’s controversial Bobo Doll study on aggression, demonstrated how children’s behaviour is influenced by the witnessed behaviour of another person, and the more likely they are to imitate that behaviour when they see there was no negative consequence or punishment. Applying Bandura’s theory to Luke’s scenario, it is possible that Luke has been exposed to glorified, violent and aggressive behaviour on television, or computer games, and is imitating these actions. Or, it could be that Luke has observed violence in the home or amongst his peers. As concluded in Bandura’s study, ‘boys imitated more physically aggressive acts than girls. There was little difference in the verbal aggression between boys and girls’ (McLeod, 2014), which could explain why Luke’s sister Kate was never as aggressive as him. In contrast to this, the biological perspective strongly supports nature, in the nature versus nurture debate, stating that there is a direct correlation between our physical processing within the brain and body, and our cognition. A biological approach to psychology suggests that we are physiologically and genetically predisposed to certain behaviours, including those occurring in response to our thoughts and feelings; Charles Darwin’s publication ‘On the Origin of Species’ in 1859, suggests that we inherit characteristics; Darwinism (Spahn, 2012). This approach uses empirical evidence making it highly scientific and consistent, however, it does not take in to account the impact ‘emotions, social pressures, environmental factors, childhood experiences and cultural variables’ (Cherry, 2021) have on our behaviours. When looking to Luke’s situation, as a 13-year-old adolescent boy, Luke will be experiencing the onset of puberty and the hormonal changes and surges it brings. At this time, Luke will have an increase of the male hormone, testosterone, which is ‘linked to changes in mood and behaviour in adolescence’ (Duke, Balzer, Steinbeck, 2014) which could be affecting Luke’s temperament and contributing to his aggression. It could also explain why his sister was less aggressive; the female hormone, oestrogen, evokes different emotions. It would also be worth considering whether Luke’s behaviour has been genetically inherited.

THE PYGMALION EFFECT: Psychologists are required to uphold the standards of the ethical guidelines set by The British Psychological Society (BPS) when carrying out research. ‘Experiments should be conducted with participants wellbeing, dignity, values and health in mind. Physical and psychological protection of participants is paramount during experiments. Any observations made should be respectfully conducted in places it would generally be expected. Participants, or their parent or guardian where appropriate, are entitled to be fully informed of experiments objectives and their participation requires, prior to giving consent to participate. It must also be made known to them that they may withdraw their consent at any time. Psychologists must be honest and transparent about the intention of their experiment, unless there are strong scientific grounds for deception, however, this must be approved by the BPS board of ethics. Once data has been obtained, it must remain confidential, unless disclosure is requested by law, or previously formally agreed. Any participant aware of their involvement should be debriefed to attempt to mitigate any unforeseen consequences as a result of the experiment. It is the responsibility of the researcher to notify participants of any further developed evidence that may affect them adversely’ (ePearl, 2020). “When we expect certain behaviours of others, we are likely to act in ways that make the expected behaviour more likely to occur.” (Rosenthal and Babad, 1985). In 1968, Rosenthal and Jacobson’ carried out a field study, ‘The Pygmalion Effect’ – an other-imposed self-fulfilling prophecy. Its objective was to determine whether teachers’ expectations of students’ performance had an effect on how well those students learned throughout the year, Although the findings of this study are significant, it failed to adhere to ethical guidelines. The participants (the teachers and students) were unaware a study was being conducted and were not given the right to consent to participate, or subsequently withdraw. Deception was in play when telling the teachers that a percentage of the students showed unusual potential, when in fact these students were chosen at random, not because of exceptional ability. This study both deceived, and failed to protect, its participants, with negative implications for the students labelled as average achievers, who are likely to have low expectations for themselves as a result. “An other-imposed self-fulfilling prophecy arises when others’ expectations of another individual affects the actions of that individual” (Schaedig, 2020). Phillip Zimbardo’s notorious ‘The Stanford Prison Experiment, 1971’, although diligently planned, breached multiple ethical guidelines. Its intention was to “test the power of the social situation to determine behaviour” (American Psychology Association, 2004). For authenticity, Zimbardo requested the State Police Authority ‘arrest’ the prisoner participants. However, they did not respond in adequate time, causing Zimbardo to fail to inform the ‘prisoners’ that home arrest was expected, neglecting opportunity for consent to be given. True arrest procedures followed, failing to preserve participant’ dignity and wellbeing. This, and the lack of intervention at the ‘guards’ degrading, brutal, dehumanising treatment of prisoners, caused the prisoners to suffer extreme distress and psychological trauma. Subsequently, the experiment was terminated on the sixth of its intended fourteen days.

CONCLUSION: Psychology is dependent on valid research to be considered scientific and taken seriously. The Scientific Method must be used allowing for the control of independent, dependant and extraneous variables. Research can be conducted experimentally and no-experimentally. Both have strengths and weaknesses that contribute to an experiment’s overall validity. There are many different approaches to psychology that can be utilised to determine and explain human behaviours occur. Behavioural approach believes behaviour is a result of nurture, and biological approach believes of nature. As discussed in this report, they both have strengths and weaknesses. I believe a multimethod approach to be most effective due to the complexity of human mind and behaviour. Ethical awareness, and adherence to the code, is fundamental in all research conducted ensuring the protection of its participants. The Stanford Prison Experiment highlighted the need for ethical guidelines, and the impact an environment and psychological variables can have on our conformity to expected social roles, by otherwise healthy individuals with no behavioural causes for concern, when there are no clear rules. People behave very differently in groups to perhaps how they would do individually. RECOMMENDATIONS: Adherence to ethical guidelines is paramount to conduct moral and ethical research. This report has discussed the detrimental impact that can occur as a result of failing to do so. When considering appropriate research methods and psychological approaches, heavy emphasis on the strengths and weaknesses of those methods would enable researchers to uphold the code, and minimise potential ethical failings, supporting opportunity for further advances in psychological discovery and knowledge.

REFERENCES: American Psychology Association (2004) Demonstrating the Power of Social Situations via a Simulated Prison Experiment Available at: https://www.apa.org/research/action/prison (Accessed: 03/07/2021) Available at: https://ldatom.epearl.co.uk//vle/_store/scorm/1603373488-introduction-topsychology-scorm2004-45z5dgojs/scormcontent/index.html#/lessons/pD7zGdJ9nDKmdQS5_TJnRZBb0jTK_I81 (Accessed: 30/06/2021) - EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH METHODS Available at: https://ldatom.epearl.co.uk//vle/_store/scorm/1603373488-introduction-topsychology-scorm2004-45z5dgojs/scormcontent/index.html#/lessons/rOyhOqBqJbMt0lWJIsvjLDS7IP_cyken (Accessed: 25/06/2021) Cherry K (2021) The Role of Biological Perspective in Psychology Available at: https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-the-biological-perspective-2794878 (Accessed: 02/07/2021)

Duke SA, Balzer BW, Steinbeck KS (2014) Testosterone and its effects on human male adolescent mood and behavior: a systematic review J Adolesc Health Sep;55(3):315-22 doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.05.007 PMID: 25151053 (Accessed: 02/07/2021) Emeghara U (2020) Bystander Effect and Diffusion of Responsibility Available at: https://www.simplypsychology.org/bystander-effect.html (Accessed: 01/07/2021)

McLeod...