Lingua E Traduzione Inglese 2 PDF

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LINGUA E TRADUZIONE INGLESE 2 1. Past Perfect: is used in contrast with the Simple Past; it refers to an action that happened before the past action. We also use it to say how often something happened and the focus is on the result. Adverbs: Never, ever, always, recently, lately, just, yet, already, still. 2. Past Perfect Progressive: is used in contrast with the Simple Past, to talk about an action that had already started in the past, and was interrupted by another past action (Past Simple). Adverbs: For, since, all day, night, morning, etc., how long. The focus is on the action and how long it has been in progress. 3. Future perfect: is used for actions that will be completed by a specific time in the future (i.g, by this time next week). It is linked to a point in time. Adverbs: yet, already, and amounts or quantities. 4. Future perfect progressive: (been + base verb form + -ing in addition to will and have). It is used to talk about action in progress at a certain time (in the future) and expresses an action in progress. It is usually used with duration of time. 5. Future progressive: is used to indicate a future event that will be ongoing (or “progressive”). Moreover, it is used to make predictions, perhaps they’re surefire predictions or they’re hopes and dreams. It follows a general formula of will + to be + verb (ending in -ing). 6. Yes/no questions: can begin with a form of be or an auxiliary like do, did or does, doesn’t, didn’t, has or have, can, or will. 7. Tag questions: use the appropriate form (number and tense) of be or the auxiliary (the appropriate form of do or a modal) and the pronoun that matches the subject. People who ask negative questions usually expect positive answers. Positive statements have negative tag questions and negative statements have positive tag questions. The speaker asking a negative question with a rising intonation expects an answer, in this case, in fact, tag questions are used to get information and are more similar to Yes or No questions. If the negative question form is being used as a comment, the intonation falls. Additions are made to avoid repetitions. They are clauses and short sentences which follow a statement and express similarity to or contrast with the information in the statement. “So” and “Too” (in affirmative statements), “Neither” and “Not either” (in negative sentences), are used to express similarity. “But” is used to express contrast. In a positive statement, you can use “so” followed by the auxiliary and the subject. In a positive statement, you can also use too at the end of the sentence, usually separated by a comma. There is also an addition use of too: name of the subject or the object pronoun followed by “too”. In a negative statement, you can use “neither”, followed by the auxiliary, and the subject. You can also use the name of the subject, or the object pronoun, followed by “neither”. In a negative statement, you can use “either” at the end of the sentence. You can use “neither” only in negative statements when the verb is affirmative. You can use “either” in negative statements when the verb is in the negative form. You can use “but” to make an addition, if you want to express contrast. 8. Gerunds are base verbs + -ing used as nouns. (She likes swimming) and Infinitives are to + base verb in form. (I like to read). Gerunds usually follow a preposition or a prepositional

phrase and they are usually used as the subject of a sentence. Infinitives are used after some adjectives and are also used after some verbs. Verbs like “help” and “dare” can be followed by the infinitive but also by the base form of the verb without preposition “to”. Some verbs can take either a gerund or an infinitive with little or no change in meaning. Some other verbs can take either a gerund or an infinitive, but there is a difference in meaning. 9. Causative verbs: are Make, Have, Let, Help, and Get. They are used as auxiliaries, to show that one person can cause (or require, permit, or persuade) another person to do something. They express the idea of someone causing something to take place and can be similar in meaning to passive verbs. Causative verbs place the stress on the fact that someone causes something to happen and can have both an active and a passive form. 10. Phrasal verbs: are less formal than single-word verbs, are used more frequently and can have more than one meaning. The particles might look like prepositions, but they act differently. (VEDI APPUNTI PRIMO ANNO) 11. Subject relative pronouns and relative pronouns: who, that, and whose (with a noun). They are the subjects of clauses within a full sentence. Relative pronouns can refer to a person, to an object or to an animal. WHO can only refer to a person. WHICH can only refer to animals and objects. THAT refers to animals, objects, and people. WHOSE is used to express possession. The relative pronouns are : WHO, WHICH, THAT, WHOM, WHOSE, WHERE, AND WHEN. We use who and whom for people, and which for objects and animals. We can also use that for people or objects or animals. We use relative pronouns: after a noun, to make it clear which person or object or animal we are talking about, to provide more information about a person, object or animal. Whose is the possessive form of who. There is a difference between the subject clauses and object clauses. Keep in mind that, in either case (subject or object relative pronoun), the relative pronoun starts the adjective clause. Moreover, note that there is a distinction between identifying and nonidentifying clauses, which are also known as defining and non-defining relative clauses. 12. Adjective clause: use that, who, whom, whose + noun, where, or when. It can modify the subject (and therefore comes before the verb), or the direct object (which typically comes after the main clause). Remember that “whom” is used to refer to a person when the person is not the subject of the adjective clause. Note that “where” and “when” can also be used as relative pronouns to refer to places and times. 13. Modals: are auxiliary verbs that express a relationship between the subject of the sentence and its main verb. CAN expresses ability (just like “BE ABLE TO”). CAN’T expresses necessity. COULD expresses possibility in the future and ability (in the past). MAY and MIGHT express possibility in the future. MUST expresses necessity and assumption (like “have (got) to”). SHOULD expresses advice, like OUGHT TO and HAD BETTER. We use modal verbs to express that something is certain or uncertain, probable or improbable, possible or impossible, to talk about ability, to ask for permission, to make requests and offers, to express necessity or prohibition. Modals are defective verbs and they are different from ordinary verbs: they do not add “s” for the third person singular in the present tense. They are auxiliaries, so you make questions by inversion, they are followed by the base form of the verb and they do not have the infinitive form or the –ing form. Modal-like verbs (for example, to be able

to, or to have got to) change, because they have “be”, or “have”, or “has”, or “had”, as part of their form, that is the auxiliary. So these words change according to time frame and person. When you need to express advice, keep in mind that “had better”, is stronger than “should”, and “should” is stronger than “ought to”. When you need to express necessity, the order from, strongest to weakest, is the following: must, have to, have got to, had better. Must and couldn't both mean certainty about assumptions. Must not and could, are not nearly so certain. 14. Modals that show Advisability in the Past: Modal + have + Past Participle. Should or Ought to or Might or Could + Have + Past Participle of the verb. They are used to talk about actions and states that were advisable (that were a good idea) in the past, but did not happen. These modals often convey a sense of regret or blame. Should not have and Ought not to have are the only verbs used in negative statements about advisability in the past. Ought to have, is not used in questions 15. May have, Might have, and Could have: are used to express speculations or possibilities about a past situation. They are usually based on facts that we have. To draw conclusions, of which you are almost certain, use Must have or Have to have. To express disbelief or impossibility, use Couldn’t have. Speculations are based on some evidence, but speculations can be wrong. There is very little difference between might have, could have, and may have in positive statements, and that these speculations are often preceded by "I don't know, but . . .". Conclusions with must have are almost certainly true. The contractions of might not and ought not are not generally used. Might have and may have, don't change in degree of certainty between negative and positive, but could have or couldn't have are very different. To express a 100% certainty, you should use was in the positive form, was not in the negative form. To express a 95% certainty, you should use must have in the positive form, could not have and cannot have in the negative form. To express less than a 95% certainty, you should use could have in the positive form, must not have in the negative form. To express less than a 50% certainty, you should use might have in the positive form, might not have in the negative form. In this case, you could also use may have in the positive form, may not have in the negative form. Although must not have and couldn't have are similar, couldn't have emphasizes that the action was impossible-or at least hard to believe. Might have and may have are used to ask for permission, could have is more commonly used for questions about possibility. 16. Passive form: Subject + verb “be” + Past Participle of the verb + by + who or what does the action. The subject of any sentence (the first part of the sentence) receives the most emphasis. Who or what did the action is sometimes less important than what was done. The agent is the person, persons, or thing that does or did the action. The object is the person, persons, or thing that receives the action. The passive requires the addition of some form of be and the verb also changes to the past participle in all tenses, including future. Remember that a sentence without a direct object cannot become a passive. 17. Passive with modals: who or what did the action is sometimes less important than what was done. The emphasis is not on the agent, but on the action and on its object. The passive + modal structure actually contains three elements: The modal verb, Be, The Past Participle. The modal is used in the short answers and that the “have to” and “going to”

expressions use appropriate forms of “do” and “be”. The addition of the passive doesn't change the meaning of the modal. 18. Passive causative: is used when the focus is on the action, not on its agent. Subject + Have or Get + object of the action + Past Participle of the verb + by + agent of the action. There are two main forms: get (something) done and have (something) done. That is: have or get (which have more or less the same meaning) + object of the action + past participle of the verb “By” introduces the agent of the action. Also remember that have or get + object + past participle means that another person performed the action. As for future meaning, be going to can be used with the two causative forms. 19. Present Real Conditionals: “if clause” and a “result clause”: the former is a subordinate; the latter is an independent clause. The verbs in both clauses are usually in the Present Simple. The “if clause” at the beginning of a sentence is always followed by a comma and that no comma is necessary for an “if clause” at the end of a sentence. Moreover, in both yes or no and wh questions, the if clause usually comes at the end. “When” can often be used instead of “if”, in present real conditionals. “When” is used for habits or things that are likely to happen many times. Modals change the meaning of the verb in the result clause but they are not generally used in if clauses. 20. Future Real Conditionals: the purpose is to state a condition and the result that will occur as a result. The if (or unless) clause can come at the beginning of the sentence, or at the end of the sentence. It requires a comma if it comes first. The structure includes an “if clause” and a “result clause”: the verb in the former clause, is in the Present Simple; the verb in the result clause, is in the Future tense (will or going to). “Might” can be used in some result sentences, in place of will or be going to. 21. Present and Future Unreal Conditionals: The if clause contains the Past Simple and looks like the past tense, but its meaning is not past. Each sentence represents a situation in which an unreal condition is stated as a proposition or a wish. If the proposed or wished for proposition were true (but it's not), then another result would follow. The structure of includes an “if clause” and a “result clause”: the verb in the former clause, is in the Past Simple; the verb in the result clause, includes would or could or might + the base form of the verb. In both yes or no questions and wh- questions, the modal would is used in the main clause, and had or were in the if clause. Short answers follow normal modal-use rules. If the clause in a sentence about a real situation is positive, the clause in the related present unreal conditional sentence is negative. If the clause in a sentence about a real situation is negative, then the clause in the related present unreal conditional sentence is positive. “Would”, is not used in the if clause, but it is the most common modal in the result clause, because it shows certainty. Sometimes ability to do something, is part of the condition, so would is replaced with could in the result clause. If the result is not certain, then might or could can appear in the result clause. The correct form of be, in present and future unreal conditionals, is always were. 22. The constructions and uses of indirect speech when you need to change the tense of the quoted statement: direct quotes are easier because the exact words of the speaker are used. However, indirect quoting (indirect speech) is much more common and natural. Moreover, you already know that moving from direct to indirect speech is moving one step into the past. Remember that the only verbs that do not change, are those that don't really have another form, like past modals. Past perfect verbs (including present and past unreal conditionals) have no further past form to move to, so they stay the same.

23. Direct and indirect speech: direct speech is also called “quoted speech” because it quotes the exact words of the speaker. You need to use quotation marks (but not in indirect speech, as it does not report the exact words of the speaker). Keep in mind these three things about indirect speech: 1. It sometimes requires a change in verb form: this happens when the reporting verb is in the past tense. However, for a newly made statement or an unchanging fact, we use the present. 2. It does not need quotation marks. 3. It often includes “that” as a clause introducer, for the indirect statement, the reworded quotation. There are similarities between say and tell: tell [to someone] is followed by the name of the listener or a personal pronoun, say [to someone] (that is, to the listener) is less common and is usually used alone. Thus, if the listener is mentioned, it is more common to use tell. 24. The constructions and uses of Indirect Questions: the word order of indirect questions is the same as the word order of affirmative statements, that is subject + verb. In indirect questions, you mustn’t use auxiliaries like do, does, or did and question marks. Yes or no questions that become indirect questions, use if or whether, or whether or not. Who and what, can take the place of the subject, so no change in word order is required with these two wh- words. When the wh- word takes the place of part of the predicate, the helping verb (do or did) is dropped and any modal (such as can or might) moves to the regular sentence word order position, after the subject. Keep in mind that the be verb, after who or what, requires a change in word order, and sometimes a change to the past. As for tense changes, the same tense changes and other changes occur in both indirect questions and indirect statements. An indirect question is not a true question. This is why it does not need a question mark. 25. Reporting Questions: When we report questions, the subject comes before the verb, we don’t use the auxiliary verb do, except in negative questions. We report yes/no questions with if or whether. When we report questions with who, what or which + to be + object, the verb be can come before or after the object. 26. Past Unreal Conditionals: the ideas expressed and the results, are untrue (perhaps impossible) or imagined. For past unreal conditionals, the past perfect is used in the if clause. The result clause uses would have + past participle form of the verb. The past condition can influence present result as well as past result, depending on the verb and the situation. If you want to express regret, you can do it with both an "I wish" statement and a past unreal conditional (in the Past Perfect). 27. INDIRECT INSTRUCTIONS, COMMANDS, REQUESTS, AND INVITATIONS: commands (direct speech) use the base form of the verb, with the subject not mentioned, but understood to be "you". In indirect speech, the infinitive (to + base verb form) is used. Keep in mind that “not” precedes the “to” of the infinitive. 28. Embedded Questions: you use them to sound politer or to ask about something you don’t know. They are softer: Can/could you tell me? Would you mind telling me?. They are included inside other sentences, either a statement or another question. In the former case, you don’t have to use a question mark at the end of the sentence. Questions are embedded in two ways: 1. The whole question is embedded. 2. A wh- word or “whether” + infinitive structure is used. Embedded yes or no questions, are like the indirect questions. The difference is that, the verbs are more likely to be ones such as: know, wonder, or can decide, rather than say or

tell. They are introduced by “if”, or “whether” or “whether not”. The rules for use of do, does, or did, are the same as for indirect questions.

ENGLISH LINGUISTICS AND CULTURE 1. The Indian subcontinent was first exposed to English in 1600, when the British East India Company was formed. By 1800, English was well established in this area and the subsequent expansion of the British Empire spread it much more widely. In the postcolonial era English is used as a second language (ESL) in this country, that is quite widely in business and government, often officially recognized and used as the medium of teaching. These varieties of English, especially those with official status, are often referred to as the New Englishes. 2. The diversity of language can be accounted for by using models such as ‘language family trees’, suggesting genetic relationships as well as spatial divergence. The tree model, a typical expression of nineteenth-century German philology, was adopted by Ferdinand de Saussure. He envisages the emergence of ‘dialect splits’ in the following way: a language, originally quite uniform, existing on two isolated islands, will eventually and gradually split into two dialects. In the branch of sociolinguistics some features can only be explained as independent innovations, others are the results of social rather than geographical phenomena: the strong sense of closeness in certain speech communities and the search for a marked identity; the possibility and frequency of contacts with other groups of people; social mobility; linguistic accommodation; urbanization. In attempting to account for the causes and effects of language change, a distinction is usually made between internal (endogenous) and external (exogenous) explanations, that is, if change is brought about by pressures which are internal to the linguistic system, or if it is the speakers who can be held responsible, adopting forms from other varieties. 3. English was introduced in outer-circle countries because they were colonised by ...