Esame di lingua e traduzione inglese 1 PDF

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DOMANDE APERTE PANIERE INGLESE 1A (Marzo 2020)

LEZIONE 001 1) We use the present continuous for: - things that are happening at the moment of speaking -temporary situations -definite future arrangements whose we have already made the plan. (ex. i'm meeting my husband tomorrow)

2) Simple past describes finished actions, states, or situations. We use the past simple with: - Finished events in the past with no connection to the present - stories / lists of events (ex. He went to a café, sat down and lit a cigarette) - or as a part of the second conditional (ex. If she knew his number, she would call him)

3) Simple present describes an action that happens regularly. But It can also describe a scientific fact. - We use the present simple when something is generally or always true and for a situation that we think is more or less permanent (ex. she works in a hospital) - The next use is for habits in which We often use adverbs of frequency (such as often, always and sometimes), as well as expressions like every Saturday or twice a year. (ex. i play tennis every Monday) - We use the present simple to talk about future actions when we are discussing a timetable or a fixed plan. (ex. school starts at 9.00 tomorrow)

4) the imperative is used to express a command (even as a request – example: please sit down!)

5) The past progressive describes an action that was in progress at a specific time in the past. We form the past continuous with was/were + the -ing form of the verb. (ex. I was drinking a coffee).

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1) The Present Perfect describes something that has started in the past, and that continues into the present (and may continue into the future) especially when it is used with since and for. Since is used to show when something started while For is used to show how long a present condition has lasted. The present perfect is also used to talk about things that happened in an indefinite time in the past so time is not important,what matters is the action while When the time is important the simple past should be used.

2) ADVICE: Should and Ought To are used to say that something is advisable, And Should, is normally used in questions. While Had Better is used to give a strong advice. The structure of the affirmative sentences with should is should+base form of the verb and It is the same for all pronouns because it is a modal verb. (ex. They should learn the rules of etiquette.) While the structure of the affirmative sentences with ought to is ought to + base form of the verb. It is the same for all pronouns because it is a modal. negative statements and questions with ought to are not common. (ex. I ought to go to the doctor). Had better is used when you believe something bad will happen if the person does not follow the advice. affirmative sentences with had better-> had better + base form.

3) REQUESTS: Could and Would usually make the request more polite while Would you mind is used for the same function but it is followed by a gerund. (ex. Can you drive me to the Burtons?/ Could you make 25 copies?/ Will you pick up dessert? / Would you photocoping this report?) Requests with could and would are more formal and polite than requests with can and will.

4) SUGGESTIONS: Let’s, Could, Why don’t, and Why not are followed by the base form of the verb while How about is followed by a noun, or gerund.

5) PRESENT PERFECT: Already is used in affirmative sentences while Yet is used in negative and interrogative sentences. Present perfect with already expresses that something has happened some time before now in an unspecified time in the past. Present perfect with yet usually indicates that something we expected to happen, did not happen, and it may happen in the future.

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1) Present Perfect Progressive focuses on how long something has been happening for. The Present Perfect Simple focuses on the result of the action. They are both used with For and Since. The present perfect progressive can show that something is temporary, and the present perfect can show that something is permanent. [With verbs such as live, study, teach, and work, plus since or for, the present perfect progressive and the present perfect have the same meaning. ex. She has been working in Africa for a year. = She has worked in Africa for a year.]

1) We usually use Adverbs after Verbs or before Adverbs and Adjectives to describe them and give more information about them. - As + adverb + as is used to compare actions and show how they are similar. - Superlative adverbs are used to compare one action with the actions of the other people or things in a group. (ex. Those two players scored the most of their team so far).

2) A gerund (base form + -ing) can be the subject of a sentence and is always singular (ex. Driving makes me nervous). It can also be the object of certain verbs such as admit, avoid, consider, and deny (ex. The doctor suggests not smoking)

4) We use the Definite Article “The” with common nouns that are Definite because they refer to a specific thing. While We use the Indefinite Articles “A” and “An” with singular count nouns which are Indefinite because they don't refer to a specific thing. We use A before a vowel sound and we use An before a consonant sound.

5) There are different nouns: proper and common nouns but also count and non-count nouns. Some common nouns, are count nouns: they can be counted, and they can be singular or plural. Other common nouns, are non-count nouns: they can't be counted, and they have no plural forms. A few and a little, are quantifiers: “a few” is used with count nouns, while “a little” with non-count nouns.

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1) Prefer, would prefer and would rather are used to talk about things or activities that you like better than other things or activities. Prefer is used to express a general preference while Would prefer and would rather are used to talk about a preference in a specific situation.

2) We use have (got) to, must, don’t have to, must not, and can’t to express different degrees of necessity. The affirmative forms have, have got to, and must express necessity. The negative form don’t have to expresses lack of necessity. The negative forms must not and can’t express prohibition.

3) Gerund can be used after prepositions because prepositions can be followed by nouns, pronouns or gerunds. Many common expressions with the preposition to are followed by a gerund, not an infinitive. (ex. We look forward to seeing you there!/Thank you for visiting the Student Council webpage).

4) We use the infinitive after certain verbs because Some verbs can be followed directly by an infinitive instead some verbs need an object before the infinitive and Some verbs can be followed by either an infinitive or an object + infinitive (ex. We need HER to pass the test).

5) Infinitives can be used also with too and enough. A reason can be expressed with too + adjective/adverb + infinitive or adjective/adverb + enough + infinitive. For + noun/pronoun can be palced before the infinitive to indicate what person, place, or thing the infinitive refers to. Some verbs are followed by a gerund and some verbs are followed by an infinitive. Some verbs are followed by either an infinitive or a gerund, and the meaning can be the same or can be different. To make general statements, you can use the gerund as subject or it + infinitive.

6) A purpose can be expressed with an infinitive that is common in informal speech and writing. A negative purpose can be expressed with in order not to + base form of verb or so as not + to-infinitive even if Because + a reason is more common in everyday spoken English. (ex. I use the calendar to plan my week. (affirmative); I left at 9:00 in order not to be late. (negative)). The infinitive of purpose can only be used if the subject of the action expressed by the infinitive is the same of that of the clause. If the subjects are different, we can use so + thatclause with the present simple or with the modal verbs may, can, will, might, could or would: (ex. I'll leave the window open so that you can breathe fresh air).

LEZIONE 056 1) Old english was born during the period of full inflections and it is the name for all the dialects spoken by Angles, Saxons and Jutes. The West Saxon is the only dialect in which there is an extensive collection of texts and Old English literature is preserved in manuscripts transcribed in these regions. The English language has changed in the course of time so that a person cannot read Old English without a special study. Old English was not a uniform language, the vocabulary was almost entirely Germanic and Indo-European, with some words derived from Latin and no words at all from French. About 85% of OE words are no longer in use. Old English nouns had grammatical gender: masculine, feminine and neuter. While adjectives were declained weak or strong depending on how they were used in a sentence. When the adjective followed a demonstrative or a possessive it was weak while when it was alone the adjective was strong. Like German, Old English possessed a definite article. Old English verbs were either strong or weak. The principal difference between strong and weak verbs was in the formation of the preterite (past) tense. (SYNTHETIC language!!!)

2) The Modern English period began in 1500 and lasts until the present day. The complex inflectional system of Old English had been simplified during the ME period. Modern English is called the period of lost inflections. The invention of the printing press also marked the passage from Old English to Modern English because books became more widespread and literacy increased and it helped to standardize English. In the fifteenth century, the Great Vowel Shift -a series of changes in English pronunciation- changed the English language. The written and spoken language of London already influenced all the country, and with the influence of the printing press, London English soon began to dominate. English grammar was fixed and the first English dictionary was published in 1604. Modern English is an analytic language (uses prepositions + words order) and has no grammatical gender.

3) The change from Middle English to Early Modern English was not just a matter of vocabulary or pronunciation changing: it was the beginning of a new era in the history of English. An era of linguistic change in a language with large variations in dialect was replaced by a new era of a more standardized language with a richer lexicon and an established literature. The revival of classical scholarship brought many classical Latin and Greek words into the Language. MIDDLE ENGLISH= comes with the Norman conquest (1066) and gives anglo-norman roots to English. EARLY MODERN ENGLISH= influx of Latin and Greek to English language at the point we get INKHORN TERM (1543), which refers to words coming from another language and modified. (period del Rinascimento quindi è normale ritorno di Greco e Latino).

4) Recently, English has become a lingua franca, a global language that is used and understood by many countries where English isn't the first/native language. In fact, English is used in

over 90 countries, and it is the working language of the Asian trade group and of a lot of international research chemists. It is also the language of computing, international communication, diplomacy, and navigation. Over one billion people are learning English, making it a global language. Its large number of speakers have made English a common language for use in different applications as controlling airplanes, developing software and business relations.

5) The great vowel shift was a change in pronunciation that began around 1400. In the fifteenth century, the Great Vowel Shift changed the English language (separating Middle from Modern English). These linguistic sound changes moved the spoken language away from the so-called “pure” vowel sounds which still characterize many continental languages today. All long vowels changed their quality to a great extent. Each long vowel came to be pronounced with a greater elevation of the tongue and closing of the mouth. Those vowels were raised and became diphthongs. Diphtongs are sounds where two vowels are pronounced after another so closely that they become one acoustic phenomenon.

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1) Phonology is the branch of linguistics that deals with systems of sounds within a languare or between different languages. Suprasegmental phonology involves two different aspects: first, this type of phonology is concerned with rules and restrictions regarding the combination of segments into larger units such as syllables. Second, it studies the phonological properties of longer stretches of speech such as stress, rhythm, tone and intonation, often collectively called prosody.

2) Phonetics is the study of speech sounds not-depending on specific languages. It is the study of the production, physical properties and perception of the actual sounds realising the phonemes and of the suprasegmental elements of speech.. There are three types of phonetics: articulatory phonetics (1) that studies how sounds are produced in the vocal tract, acoustic phonetics (2) that studies how they are transmitted through the air and the physical properties of speech sounds. It is an objective way to describe sounds, which measures and analyses the physical properties (such as duration, frequency and intensity) of the sound waves that a person produces when speaking. While the auditory phonetics (3) studies how they are perceived by the listener.

3) In connected speech, sounds often influence each other so that they become more like a neighbouring sound in terms of one or all of its articulatory features. This process is called assimilation. When the assimilation moves backwards to the preceding segment, it is known as regressive assimilation. When the assimilation moves forward to the following element is called progressive assimilation. Assimilation by which sounds become more similar with each other is called partial assimilation. When the assimilated sounds become identical, we talk about total assimilation. Examples:

4) Yod is the name of the smallest letter in the Hebrew alphabet – it stands for the vowel /i/ or the semivowel /j/. In English phonetics Yod coalescence is a form of assimilation – it is a phenomenon which takes place when /j/ is preceded by certain consonants most commonly /t/ and /d/. YOD COALESCENCE IS COMMON IN COLLOQUIAL SPEECH and IT CAN OCCUR: - BETWEEN WORD BOUNDARIES - WITHIN WORDS - Ex. /t/ + /j/ = /tS/. - but use your head!-> /b@tSu:z j@ hed/ - what you need-> /wotSuni:d/

5) grass: /'grɑ:s/ tea: /'ti:/ vegetable: /'vedʒɪtəbl/ sword: /'sɔ:d/ imagination: /ɪˌmædʒɪ'neɪʃ/ organize: /'ɔ:gənaɪz/ teacher: /'ti:tʃə/ check: /'tʃek/ environment: /ɪn'vaɪərənmənt/

6) Prosody is the name that refers to the phonological properties of longer stretches of speech such as stress, rhythm, tone and intonation.

7) Phonotactics is the study of the possible combinations of phonemes in a language whose rules are language-specific and differ extensively between individual languages. Phonological phenomena such as stress, rhythm, tone and intonation can be subsumed under the term prosody..

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1) Morphology examines how words are created, structured, and changed. (The word “morphology” was coined by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe to describe a new science concerned with the anatomies of animals and plants at the end of the 18th century. However, he could not imagine that linguists would later use his term for the study of the “anatomy” of words). Morphology is the study of the way in which words are constructed out of smaller units which have a meaning or grammatical function, (for example the word friendly is constructed from friend and the adjective-forming –ly). It includes the morphemes that are the smallest meaningful units of a language and the rules for combining them to derive and inflect words in a particular language.

2) Bound morphemes appear only in combination with free morphemes and never on their own. All bound morphemes are affixes, so as morphemes that are attached to other morphemes. Affixes play an important role in various morphological processes. (ex. reader-> read + -er)

3) Some morphemes are identical with words. They can combine with other morphemes or stand alone. Consequently, these morphemes are called free morphemes. (ex. eat, date, week).

4) In morphology, we have open classes that frequently adopt new members, and closed classes that usually do not adopt new members. This corresponds to an important distinction between two groups of word classes. The first group contains word classes such as nouns (e.g. student), verbs (e.g. borrow), adjectives (e.g. new) and adverbs (e.g. quickly). These word classes are called content words. They are also known as lexical classes. Lexical classes are usually open, because they regularly adopt new members. The second group contains word classes such as determiners (e.g. the), prepositions (e.g. from), quantifiers (e.g. every) and conjunctions (e.g. and). These word classes are called function words. They are also known as grammatical classes. Grammatical classes are usually closed, as they rarely adopt new members. ex. (open classes) -> nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs [student, borrow, new, quickly] ex (close classes)-> determiners, prepositions, quantifiers, conjunctions [the, from, every, and]

5) DEFINITIONS of morphological phenomenon NEL QUADERNO

6) A derivational morpheme is an affix or a prefix added on a root word to create a new word or a new form of the existing word.

LEZIONE 080 1) Semantics is the branch of linguistics that deals with the study of meaning, changes in meaning, and the principles that govern the relationship between sentences or words and their meanings. It is the study of the relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent. Semantics is divided into three branches: - lexical semantics, which focuses on the meaning of lexemes (meaning of words and the relationship among words). - phrasal semantics, which examines larger meaningful units, such as the meaning of sentences; - discourse semantics, which investigates spoken or written discourse.

2) Symbolic: if the sign's exponent has a relationship with the sign's referents the sign is called symbol (colours of lights are symbolic= red lights: stop and green lights: go). Iconic: when there is a natural resemblance between the exponent and the referents of the sign, it is an icon.

3) Synonymy: word or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word or phrase. Antonymy: sense relations that exist between words which are opposite in meaning. Hyponymy: an hyponym is a word whose semantic field is more specific than its hypernym Metonymy: reference to a thing by naming something closely associated with it. For instance, “suits” means “businessmen”. Presupposition: when a sentence presupposes or takes for granted another statement. Paradox: is a seemingly absurd or contradictory statement or proposition which when investigated may prove to be well founded or true.

Reference: is the bond between concept and object in a sentence. Reference is the relation between a language expression such as this door, both doors, the dog, another dog and whatever the expression pertains to in a particular situation of language use, including what a speaker may imagine. Reference is the way speakers and hearers use an expression successfully. Sense:

LEZIONE 088 1) Geographical variation is also called horizontal variation and it consists in language variation that is caused by the background of speakers that develops when people are separated geographically or socially. Linguistic innovations such as new words or new pronunciations t...