Med-Terms Final Exam Study Guide PDF

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MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE

Module Thirteen : Urogenital/Reproductive System

Urinary System

The Kidney ➔ The kidney is reddish brown in color and shaped like a bean. The two kidneys are positioned retroperitoneally, meaning that they are positioned behind the parietal peritoneum (the parietal peritoneal membrane lines the wall of the abdominal cavity).

➔ The kidneys function primarily in maintaining the body’s fluid homeostasis. Specifically

they regulate the composition and volume of extracellular fluid. They remove metabolic waste products from the bloodstream and dilute them with water and electrolytes to excrete urine. The combining forms are nephr/o (from the Greek word nephros = kidney) and ren/o (from the Latin word renes = kidneys). The important adjective formed from this combining for is renal. The Nephron ➔ The structural and functional unit of the kidney in the formation of urine is the nephron, which in configuration resembles a long microscopic funnel. ➔ Each kidney has approximately 1.25 million nephrons. The nephrons form urine by filtration, reabsorption and secretion.The clusters of nephron tubules give the renal cortex its somewhat granular appearance.

The Ureter ➔ The ureter is a tube that is approximately 25 centimeters in length that descends behind the peritoneum. There are two ureters. They carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. The ureter wall has three layers: the mucosa, mucularis, and adventitia. ➔ The term ureter is Latin and is derived from the Greek words oureter = urinary duct and ourein = to make water.The combining form is ureter/o.

The Bladder

➔ The urinary bladder is situated on the pelvic floor posterior to the pelvic symphysis. The bladder wall has three layers (see below). The bladder is highly distensible to accommodate urine storage.

➔ The combining forms are cyst/o (from the Greek kystis = a bladder, bag, or pouch) and vesic/o (from the Latin vesica = a bladder or bag).

The Urethra

➔ The urethra is a tube that is thin-walled and muscular. Urine passes through the urethra and is thereby conveyed out of the body. In men the urethra runs through the prostate (prostatic urethra) for about 1 inch (2.5 cm). ➔ The male urethra has two functions: it conveys both urine and semen outside of the body. ➔ The female urethra is shorter than the male urethra and is approximately 1.5 inches in length (3-4 cm). The male urethra is about 8 inches long (20 cm). ➔ An autonomically controlled internal urethral sphincter at the bladder-urethra junction keeps the urethra closed to prevent urination. ➔ The combining form is urethr/o- (the term urethra is from the Greek ourethra = urethra, from ourein to make water).

Female Reproductive System

➔ The term uterus is derived from the Latin uterus = womb, belly, paunch. The combining form is uter/o. The common adjective is uterine. The term ovary is from the Late Latin ovarium = a receptacle of eggs. The combining form is ovari/o. The common adjective is ovarian.

Male Reproductive System ➔ The combining form of penis is pen/o. The term penis is derived from the Latin word penis = tail, penis. The common adjective is penile. The term testes is from the Latin word testis = a witness (i.e. to one’s virility as the organ that defines manhood). ➔ The combining form is testicul/o. The common adjective is testicular.

Combining Forms and Their Derivation

Greek/Latin

Definition

Combining Form

amnios (Gr.)

lamb (fetal

amni/o

membrane)

askos (Gr.)

pouch, sack

ascit/o

(ascites)

balanos (Gr.)

penis

balan/o

calix (Lat.)

cup, pot

calic/o

cervix (Lat.)

pertaining to the

cervic/o

neck of an organ

didymos (Gr.)

twin, as in the

didym/o

testicles

epision (Gr.)

vulva (female

episi/o

external genitalia)

hymen (Gr.)

membrane, the

hymen/o

hymen

hystera (Gr.)

uterus

hyster/o

kleitoris (Gr.)

clitoris

clitor/o

kolpos (Gr.)

vagina

colp/o

kustis (Gr.)

bladder

cyst/o

locheia (Gr.)

childbirth, lochia

lochi/o

metra (Gr.)

uterus

metr/o

nephros (Gr.)

kidney

nephr/o

numphe (Gr.)

maiden

nymph/o

orchis (Gr.)

testicle

orchi/o, orchid/o

oureter (Gr.)

ureter

uretr/o

ourethra (Gr.)

urethra

urethr/o

ouron (Gr.)

urine

ur/o

pexis (Gr.)

a fixing, putting

-pexy

together, surgical fixation

phallos (Gr.)

penis

phall/o

prostates (Gr.)

one who stands

prostat/o

before (prostate gland stands before the testes)

pyelos (Gr.)

pan, basin, (renal)

pyel/o

pelvis

renes (Lat.)

kidneys

ren/o

rheos (Gr.)

flowing, discharge

rrhe/o

salpingx (Gr.)

fallopian tube

salping/o

scrotum (Lat.)

scrotum

scrot/o

sperma (Gr.)

seed

spermat/o

testis (Lat.)

witness, testes

testicul/o

tokos (Gr.)

childbirth

toc/o

uterus (Lat.)

uterus

uter/o

vagina (Lat.)

sheath, vagina

vagin/o

vas (Lat.)

vessel

vas/o

vesica (Lat.)

bladder

vesic/o

vulva (Lat.)

wrapper, vulva

vulv/o

Important Words Word

Definition

albuminuria

presence of albumin in the urine (symptom of kidney disease or failure).

acute

sharp, severe (from the Latin word acer).

acme

the highest point or peak (from the Greek word akme).

anuria

anuresis. The absence of urinary production possibly due to kidney dysfunction or failure.

ascites

excessive accumulation of serous fluid in the peritoneal cavity (from the Greek word askites = dropsy, now called hydrops).

bacteriuria

bacteria in the urine

catheter

tube for evacuating or injecting fluids (from the Greek word katheter = something inserted).

chorion

the outermost extraembryonic membrane that gives rise to the placenta (from the Greek word chorion = skin, leather).

contraction

a shortening or tightening, as of a muscle.

depression

a hollow or lowered region. The lowering of vital functions, as respiration. A mental state characterized by dejection.

diuretic

an agent that increases the secretion of urine.

dysmenorrhea

painful or difficult menstruation.

dyspareunia

painful coitus, experienced by women.

dystocia

difficult labor (from the Greek dys- = difficult and tokos = childbirth).

epididymitis

Acute inflammation the epididymis. From the Greek words epi- = on + didymos = testicle + itis = inflammation.

fornix

the part of the vagina that lies superior to the cervix (from the Latin word fornix = arch, vault).

fundus

dome-like top of the uterus above the fallopian tubes (from the Latin word fundus = bottom, in anatomy the term is used to indicate the point of a hollow structure farthest from its opening).

gonad

a gamete-producing gland, e.g., the ovary or testes (form the Greek word gonos = offspring, childbirth, seed, womb).

hydrocele

an accumulation of serous fluid in any saclike cavity or duct, e.g., in the tunic vaginalis of the testicle (from the Greek words hydor = water + kele = hernia, since the fluid sac was originally thought to be protruding into the scrotum from the peritoneum).

hypospadias, hypospadia

congenital opening of the male urethra upon the undersurface of the penis. Also a urethral opening into the vagina.

ischemia

a decrease in the supply of blood or blood flow to a body part (from the Greek word ischanein = to hold in check, to hold back).

incontinence

inability to retain urine, semen, through loss of sphincter control, or due to cerebral or spinal lesions. Absence of restraint in sexual activities.

infundibulum

funnel shaped part of the fallopian tube (from the Latin word infundibulum = funnel).

leukorrhea

white or yellowish mucous discharge from the cervical canal or vagina.

meatus

a passage or opening.

menarche

the first monthly menstruation signaling the onset of puberty (from the Greek words men- = month + arche = beginning).

nephrology

study of the anatomy, physiology and pathology of the kidney. The medical practitioner specializing in the field is called a nephrologist.

preeclampsia

a abnormal condition of pregnancy characterized by increasing hypertension, headaches, and edema. May lead to true eclampsia (Gr. ek = out + lampein = to shine).

primigravidia

a woman during her first pregnancy (Latin primus = first + gravida = pregnant).

prolapse

a falling or dropping down of an organ or internal part.

proteinuria

protein, usually albumin, in the urine.

puerperium

perios following the third stage of labor (from the Latin words puer = child + parere = to bear).

pyuria

pus in the urine.

retroversion

a turning, or a state of being turned back, especially an entire organ being tipped (Latin retro- + versus).

transurethral resection

partial excision through the urethra.

urology

the branch of medicine concerned with the study of the urinary system. The medical practitioner of this discipline is known as a urologist.

uterine atony

debility or lack of normal tone of the uterus.

variocele

enlargement of the veins of the spermatic cord commonly occurring on the left side in adolescent males. Treatment is rarely required.

Psychiatry ➔ Psychiatry investigates and treats various mental illnesses, many of which, like depression, can be chronic, debilitating, and as life threatening as serious physical illnesses. Historically mental illness was recognized as a discrete illness around 3500 years ago. ➔ Discovered in mummy wrappings in 1872 by the German Egyptologist George Ebers, the Ebers Papyrus (ca. 1500 BCE, 110 pages, 20 meters long, and written in hieratic) refers to depression and dementia in the chapter of the papyrus scroll called the Book of Hearts. ➔ The Bible contains references to mental illness, e.g., Saul in I Samuel suffers from depression and is cured by listening to music. ➔ The Greeks seem to have been acutely aware of mental illness and it figures frequently in

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their mythology. From the Greeks we have terminology such as melancholia (black bile) for depression, mania (madness) in reference to various psychotic states, and hysteria for unexplained physical symptoms (paralysis, pain, etc.) with no physiological underpinning. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle were Greek philosophers who speculated about the nature of the psyche that is commonly translated as "soul." Socrates, it appears, theorized that the psyche was the seat of character and intellect in humans. He advocated self-knowledge, according to the Delphic proverb “know thyself” and is reported to have said that “the unexamined life is not livable (or worth living as it is usually translated). Socrates’ pupil Plato went on to develop the soul/body dichotomy (e.g., in the Phaedo). Plato’s pupil Aristotle went on to develop a theory of psychology centered on the psyche as a receiver of knowledge and, in humans, possessed of rationality. In the absence of sensory input the psyche was a blank slate. Aristotle furthermore believed that negative emotions could be purged by tragedy in a process he termed katharsis which means literally “purification” in Classical Greek. As we outlined in Module One, Hippocrates broke from tradition in viewing the brain as the organ of mind or cognition, rather than the heart (as did Aristotle for example). In one of his treatises, On Injuries of the Head, he determined that injuries on the one side of the head were associated with paralysis on the other side of the body. In another treatise, On the Sacred Disease, he theorized that epilepsy was due to natural causes (rather than divine involvement, as was traditionally thought) and postulated that an imbalance in the four humors was the causal factor. These four humors (or bodily fluids), which went on to play a large role in ancient theories of mental illness, were black bile, yellow bile, blood and phlegm. Hippocrates thought that these four humors were distilled from the four basic elements (first proposed by the philosopher-poet Empedocles, ca 490-430 BCE), earth, air, fire, and water. Prior to Aristotle he employed the term katharsis to refer to the purgation of morbid humors. The term catharsis was taken up by Sigmund Freud as a fundamental concept in his theory of psychoanalysis.

Study of Mental Illness: Galen and the Humoral Theory ➔ Approximately 600 years after Hippocrates, the surgeon Galen (ca 130-200 CE, born in Pergamum) took up the humoral theory and used it to explain personality, with each humor being associated with a particular temperament. ➔ Galen thought that an excess of black bile made a person melancholic or sad (melancholicus a Latinization of the Greek melas = black and chole = bile), an excess of blood made a person cheerful (Lat. sanguineus from the word sanguis = blood), in the same way an excess of phlegm leads to phlegmatic (sluggish) disposition (phlegmaticus a Latinization from the Greek phlegmatikos), and an excess of yellow bile leads to a choleric (fiery) temperament (cholericus a Latinization from the Greek cholerikos, chole = yellow bile). DSM-5 ➔ The American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-5) is the Psychiatrist’s modern guide to the diagnosis and classification of mental disorders. ➔ As in the case of the other branches of medicine, the DSM-5 reflects in much of its classification terminology the influence of the Greeks. ➔ In the remainder of this module we will trace some of the more prevalent psychiatric terms that derive from Greek and (in some cases) Latin origins. Phobias

➔ The term phobia is derived from the Greek word phobia = fear and refers to excessive fear experienced by a person when confronted with a specific object, circumstance, or situation. ➔ Phobias are classified among anxiety disorders and are readily diagnosed due to the specific focus of the fear. ➔ The fear of spiders or arachnophobia is quite common (from the Greek arachne = spider + phobia = fear). ➔ Another common phobia is agoraphobia, the fear of open (crowded) places (from the Greek agora = marketplace + phobia). Common Phobias

Phobia

Derivation

Meaning

achluophobia

Gr. achlys = mist, darkening

fear of darkness

of the sight

acrophobia

Gr. akron = top, tip, end

fear of heights

aerophobia

Gr. aer = air, atmosphere

fear of flying

agoraphobia

Gr. agora = public gathering

fear of open places

place, market

bibliophobia

Gr. biblion = book

fear of books

claustrophobia

Lat. claustra = barricade,

fear of being closed in

enclosure

without escape

cynophobia

Gr. kyon, kynos = dog

fear of dogs

dendrophobia

Gr. dendron = tree

fear of trees

entomophobia

Gr. entoma = insects

fear of insects

erotophobia

Gr. eros, erotos = love

fear of sexual love (or sexual abuse)

gamophobia

Gr. gamos = marriage

fear of marriage

(wedding ceremony)

gelotophobia

Gr. gelos, gelotos = laughter

fear of being laughed at

gerontophobia

gymnophobia

Gr. geron, gerontos = old

fear of growing old, fear of

man

the elderly

Gr. gymnos = naked, without

fear of nakedness

clothing

heliophobia

Gr. helios = sun

fear of sunlight

hemophobia

Gr. haima = blood

fear of (the sight of) blood

herpetophobia

Gr. herpeton = reptile

fear of reptiles

hodophobia

Gr. hodos = road, way,

fear of travel

journey

hydrophobia

Gr. hydor = water

fear of water

hypnophobia

Gr. hypnos = sleep

fear of sleep or nightmares

hypochondria

Gr. hypo- = beneath +

(hypochondriasis)

chondros = cartilage (The

fear of illness

spleen is located beneath the hypochondrium and a lack of organic cause was attributed to the “splenic flexure syndrome”, i. e. functional bowel disorder witnessed in neurotics.)

monophobia

Gr. monos = alone, solitary

fear of being alone

musophobia

Gr. mus, muos and Lat.

fear of mice or rats

(muriphobia)

mus, muris = mouse or rat

necrophobia

Gr. nekros =dead body

fear of death or the dead

pyrophobia

Gr. pyr, pyros = fire

fear of fire

scopophobia

Gr. skopos = a watcher

fear of being looked at

thalassophobia

Gr. thalassa = sea

fear of the sea

xenophobia

Gr. xenos = stranger,

fear of strangers,

foreigner

foreigners

Sigmund Freud ➔ Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is a major figure in the history of psychiatry. His great contribution is psychoanalysis that is still regarded as a central theoretical approach in psychiatry and psychotherapeutic practice. He emphasized the role of the unconscious as well as childhood experiences in the development of psychological symptoms. ➔ The technique of psychoanalysis, he maintained, allowed the therapist to observe a patient’s unconscious in a clinical setting through the technique of free association, in which patients are encouraged to say whatever comes into their minds. ➔ The t...