Mt ii - Appunti modulo teorico inglese 2- Broccias PDF

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Appunti modulo teorico inglese 2- Broccias...

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English language II syntax Prof.:Cristiano Broccias Material : book “an introduction to the english grammar” Elly van Gelderen + course slides + English syntax Berk CHAPTER I: introduction to english grammar, important differences ! Knowledge can be

Implicit,acquisition through usage The knowledge of L1 phonology,morphology,grammar and syntax is implicit

Explicit,acquisition through rules The knowledge that a learner has about a language and he or she is conscious of and able to report in some way.

Grammar can be

Descriptive It describes how the language is used.

Prescriptive It explains how the language should be used.

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CHAPTER 2: Word classes.! Word classes/ categories are divided into

1)Lexical categories/ content words: They carry the lexical meaning of a sentence. It is an open category.

2)Grammatical category/ function words: They determine the syntax of a sentence. It is a closed category.

Nouns—> In morpho-synctactic terms: nouns are often preceded by “the”; they can be pluralized and singularized Verbs—> In morpho-syntactic terms: verbs can express tens; at the 3rd singular person they end with -s ; they can be preceded by an auxiliary. Adjectives—> they are modifer to nouns. According to their position we distinguish into attributive adjectives ( if they precede the noun they modify) and predicative adjectives (if they come after the copula verbs*1) Adverbs—> They are modifier to verbs, but they can also modify other adverbs and adjectives (called in this role degree adverbs)

Pronouns —> They replace nouns and phrases (ex:”I’d like the blue jumper,not the red one.”). We recognize various types of pronouns: personal,possessive,reflexive,indefinite(n ote that in some cases pronouns can refer to something or someone that in unknown, for example “ Someone nicked my keys”),demonstrative,numerals, whpronouns. Determiners —> They are modifier to nouns; Articles, possessive (genitive), and demonstrative forms are all considered determiners.(!Attention! Don’t confuse between det. and pronoun: a determiner needs a noun to go with, a pronoun doesn’t.) Preposition —>They are invariable in form and occur always before a noun. they can be simple (on,under,before etc.) or complex (on top of, next to etc.)

NOTES *1 COPULA VERB: Verb “be” and perceptions verbs. More at chapter 4 *2 MODALS: Remember that modals express modality! (there is an exercise on modality in the exam!!) More at chapter 6

Conjunctions —> two types: 1)Coordinators, join two elements of the same kind ( and, or,but) 2)Subordinators,join two clauses where one is subordinated to the other(that,because,if) Auxiliary —>They function to help another verb, they can’t occur on their own.They are divided into primary auxiliaries and modals*2

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CHAPTER 3: Phrases

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ATTENTION: DON’T CONFUSE Phrase= sintagma (it) not “frase” Frase= sentence/clause !

Sentences can be divided into group of words that belong together. The group of word is called a phrase. Each phrase in a sentence has an element which is more important than the others. This element is the HEAD of the phrase and it determines the type of the phase: We distinguish into 5 types of phrases: 1) Noun Phrase (NP), the noun is the head 2) Verb Phrase (VP), the verb is the head (VPs include obligatory material,called complements). The VP contains one lexical verb and, optionally, up to four auxiliaries 3) Adjective Phrase (AdjP), the adjective is the head 4) Adverb Phrase (AdvP), the adverb is the head (not the degree adverb! the degree adverb modify another adverb or adjective, so we never find it alone) 5) Prepositional Phrase (PP), the preposition is the head, and an NP always follow the preposition [fixed structure]

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CHAPTER 4: Functions in the sentence. Previously we saw phrases, labelled as NP,VP,AdjP,AdvP,PP, which are the form of the sentence. Phrases have functions in the sentence, but the form of a phrase and the function that a phrase plays in a sentence is something different and should be kept separate. FORM NP VP AdjP AdvP PP

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FUNCTION Subject Predicate Complement Adverbial/Modifier

—Subject and predicate: Every complete sentence has a subject and a predicate. The subject is usually realized by an NP ( and sometimes by a clause as we will see). The predicate is always realized by a VP Tests to determine the subject: 1)Inversion with the auxiliary ex: The pig will want to eat soon” —> “ Will the pig want to eat soon? 2)Verb agreement ex: The pig wants to eat —> The pigs wantØ to eat soon 3)Tag question ex: Koalas are cute, aren’t they? This babyØ is cute,isn’t he?

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—Complements: A complement is a word, phrase, or clause that is necessary to complete the meaning of a given expression. We have already seen that the VP has obligatory complements (until an intransitive verb occurs). NPs, AdjPs,PPs can potentially have complements. Summary of complements: 1)direct object 2)indirect object 3)prepositional object 4)subject complement/predicate 5)object complement/predicate 6)object/complement of preposition 7)adjective complement 8)noun complement 9)verb complement

1)DIRECT OBJECT The direct object answers to the question “what/who” about the verb. For example: One million people saw (what?)—> last night’s documentary D.O. She saw (who?) Thomas D.O. The direct object can become a subject through passivization. For example: Tom read the letter —> The letter(subject) was read by Tom

2)INDIRECT OBJECT The indirect object expresses the goal or the beneficiary of the action of the verb. It answers to the question “to whom/for whom” . It can occur with prepositions “to” and “for” before the noun, or without prepositions. For example:I gave Tom I.O. a letter/ I gave a letter to Tom (to whom? to Tom) I made Harry some soup/ I made some soup for Harry (For whom? for Harry)!

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3)PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT The prepositional object is the “direct” object of prepositional verbs, i.e. those verbs that select the preposition, for example: Refer to, reply to, look for, glance at etc. You can find the P.O. by asking the same question of the D.O., but preceded by the preposition of the verb. For example: I was looking for a T-shirt P.O.(For what? For a T-shirt) Did you reply to her email? P.O. (To what? To her email)

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Remember that the prepositional object is always realized as a PP

4)SUBJECT COMPLEMENT/PREDICATE The subject complement makes a claim or a description about the subject. It is introduced by a copular (or linking) verb (verb “be” or perception verbs, see after for explanation). The S.C. is usually realized as an AdjP, but it can also be a NP or PP. For example: He is [nice]AdjP S.C. example with He looks old S.C. He is [a nice person]NP S.C. perception verbs:This silk feels nice S.C He is [in the garden]PP S.C.!

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Perception verbs can be replaced by “be” to test if there is a S.C.

5)OBJECT COMPLEMENT The object complement makes a claim or a description about the direct object. There are few verbs that take both direct object and O.C. ; they are: -consider -think -find How to find a O.C -know 1) Only look for it if there -put is a direct object -place 2) Only look for it if there is one of the verb -call For example: She called the baby D.O. Tracy O.C. I considered Sabina D.O. very smart O.C.

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listed 3) If you leave out the O.C., the sentence is incomplete or has a different meaning

6)OBJECT OF PREPOSITION As we previously saw, the PP is made up with a preposition,which is the head, and a NP always follow the preposition. The NP functions as object of preposition (O.P.) For example: To the moon O.P. for you O.P. !

Don’t confuse the object of preposition with the prepositional object!!! (the P.O. only occurs with prepositional verbs)

7)ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENT Adjective complements can occur only after the subject complement. They are like “direct object” of the subject complement. Look for it only if you see the following structure: [SUBJECT+COPULA VERB+SUBJECT COMPLEMENT] What follows this structure is the ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENT If this structure is not present, also the Adj.C. is not present. For example: Ginny (subject) is(copula) certain(subject complement) [that the project will be a success] Adj.C. Ed (subject) is (copula) ready(SC) to leave Adj.C. 8)NOUN COMPLEMENT Noun complements occur with nouns which are verb-like. In a NP, there can be only one complement. ! For example: A teacher of physics N.C. from England

How to find a N.C. 1) The N.C. is always the closest element to the noun 2) If you change the noun into a verb, the N.C. must become a direct object/ prepositional object 3) Pronominalization: noun+N.C. can be pronominalized,other elements can’t

Their discussion about genetics N.C.—> They discussed about genetics P.O. I know [the teacher of physics] from England and the one from France

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9) VERB COMPLEMENT A verb complement is realized by a clause. This clause functioning as V.C. occurs after a direct object realized by a NP and it is required by the main verb. For example: A Tesco store has asked customers D.O. [not to shop] V.C. barefoot ! How to find a V.C. 1) The main verb is monotransitive and has a deontic force. 2) Structure: SUBJECT+MAIN MONOTRANSITIVE VERB+ DIRECT OBJECT realized by NP+ VERB COMPLEMENT 3) The V.P. is required for discourse coherence —> “A Tesco store has asked customers.” the sentence without the vp is incomplete.

—Predicate: The predicate is always realized as a VP. We now see the different verb types, distinguished depending on what object or object complements they select. Verb types 1)Intransitive —> NO object. example: " Sally was sleeping” 2)Monotransitive —> ONE direct object. “ Sally hates spiders D.O.” 3)Ditransitive —> TWO objects (one direct,one indirect) "Sally handed Tom I.O. the document D.O.” 4)Copular/linking verb —> It carries the Subject Complement “Sally grew tired S.C.” 5)Complex transitive —> It carries the D.O. and the Object Complement “Sally named the baby D.O. Tracy O.C. 6) Prepositional verbs —> Verbs that select a preposition and carry prepositional object 7)Phrasal verbs —> Verbs with a particle. If the particle is deleted, the verb has a different meaning. Ex: get/ get up break/break down 8) Phrasal prepositional verbs —> Mixed type. ex: he can’t put up with this noise 9) Non-finite verbs —> explained in chapter 6 8 di 26

—Adverbials/modifiers: Adverbials (or modifiers) are the optional elements in the sentence that provide background informations on when, where, why, how the event described by the verb and its complement takes place. The usual order in a sentence is: manner, place, time. We distinguish into three types of adverbials!

ADJUNCTS Also called VP-adverbials, they are the adverbials described above. for example: She ate the food in the dark

CONJUNCTS They are used to conjoin clauses. for example: She didn’t go to NY. Also, she couldn’t afford it

DISJUNCTS They don’t modify the action. They only express the views and the mood of the speaker. we only find them at the beginning or at the end of a sentence. For example: Unfortunately, she didn’t answer the question !!Only realized as AdvP

CHAPTER 5: The verb group phrase VGP As we have already seen, a VP contains one lexical verb and optionally up to four auxiliaries.When both auxiliary an lexical verb occur, we label them as VGP We now see the characteristics of lexical verbs and auxiliaries. —> Lexical verbs: -It must be present in a VP, until ellipsis occurs. -They are independent (they can stay alone in a sentence) -They carry the real meaning —> Auxiliaries: -Used with lexical verbs -They invert in questions -They are used n tag questions -They have little meaning, but they carry TENSE,MOOD,ASPECT,MODALITY!!

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Verb analysis: (pay attention to this, there is an exercise in the exam) TENSE: PRESENT/PAST (no tense with non-finite verbs !) ASPECT: PROGRESSIVE (be+ -ing)/ PERFECT (have + -en/ed/ irregular form) VOICE: ACTIVE/PASSIVE MOOD: INDICATIVE (or unmarked) / IMPERATIVE/ SUBJUNCTIVE MODALITY: DEONTIC/ EPISTEMIC/ DYNAMIC

Deontic modality:Constructions in which the speaker expresses volition or obligation and/ or attempts to direct the behavior of another. Epistemic modality: Epistemic modality expresses the speaker’s opinion about the sentence. It is needed to convert an impersonal fact to a subjective opinion about that fact. for example: Tom must have gone out = I suppose Tom has gone out. In other words, epistemic modality expresses the speaker’s behavior and opinion about the sentence Can be com- municated by auxiliaries, lexical verbs, and adverbs. Dynamic modality: the ability or requirement of the subject to do something. 10 di 26

CHAPTER 6: Different types of clauses !

1)Main clause:can stand alone as a complete sentence.

5) Relative clause 2)Embedded ( or subordinated clause)

3)Coordinated clause

4) Non-finite clause

1)Main clause: a main clause (also known as in independent clause) is made up of a subject and a predicate that together express a complete concept. It can stand alone in a sentence. For ex: I like koalas. 2)Subordinate clause: A subordinate clause is a clause that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence because it does not express a complete thought, so it is dependent to the main clause. It is typically linked to the main clause by a complementizer(It is a"word used to introduce a complementizer phrase FORM: CP

FUNCTION: -Subject -Subject complement -Object -Adverbial

including"subordinate conjunctions, relative pronouns, and relative adverbs.), and it is represented as CP

( complementizer phrase). Examples of subordinate clauses, the complementizer is in bold: She left [before they arrived]CP The problem is [that she left]CP I’m tired [because I didn’t sleep]CP

FUNCTION: Remember that subordinate clauses always have a function in a sentence. Examples: [That she left]CP is obvious —> CP functions as subject The problem is [that she left] CP —> CP=subject complement They know [why she left]CP —> CP= object They were sad [because she left]CP —> CP=adverbial

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3) Coordinate clause: a coordinate clause is a"clause that is introduced by one of the coordinating conjunctions,most commonly and or but. They have the same importance of the main clause ( they are equal). For ex: Sally was singing and [Pete was cooking] FORM: Two ways to represent coordinate clauses. See after.

4) Non- finite clauses: Non-finite clauses are realized with non-finite verbs. !

Non-finite verbs

Infinitives: 2 types 1)To-infinitive: I wanted [to eat] 2)Bare infinitive: She made me [eat] (Remember that bare infinitive occurs only as the object after verbs such as “make,hear,see,feel”)

present participle “ing form” ex: [walking back home,] he was hit by a lorry

Past participle “-ed/-en” end or irregular form ex: [Arrested last night,] he is in jail this morning

Characteristics of non-finite verbs -NF verbs don’t express tenses, the finite one does. -NF verbs don’t display person or number

Function of non-finite clauses: -Subject—> [Drinking too many pints]CP is dangerous. -Subject complement —> Her wish is [to become a top model]CP -Object —> she loves [drinking wine]CP -Adverbial —> She spent three years in Japan [ learning the language]CP -Verb complement —> He persuaded us [to leave]CP

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5)Relative clause: A relative clause is a clause that always follows the NP and typically starts with a wh-pronoun(called relative pronoun because it introduces a relative clause) or with “that”. The relative pronoun has the same referent as the preceding NP (i.e. if the preceding NP functions as subj., the referent of the relative pronoun is the subject, if the preceding NP functions as obj., the referent of the relative pronoun is the object and so on.) There are different types of RC:! 1)

2)

3)

Restrictive RC: Restrictive RCs are used to restrict the possible referents of the preceding NP. In fact, they are usually used in cases in which the preceding NP has more than one potential referent. They don’t occur with proper nouns( because the referent is already clear) Example: I don’t know the studentNP [who is standing in the back]CP (So, if there is a group of students, you know that the one mentioned is the one in the back.) Non-restrictive RC: Non Restrictive RCs provide additional informations about the preceding NP and they are never crucial in determine the referent. N-R RCs allow us to introduce unfamiliar people into discourse by using a common NP or proper noun followed by explanatory material. Example: My uncle,[who is from Italy], lives in England= My uncle lives in England. Reduced RC: Relative clauses realized with non-finite clauses. Example: The girl [sitting on the bench] is Pam.

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CHAPTER 7: Marked sentences Unmarked sentence= A sentence that follows the following order: Subject-verb-object (SVO ORDER) Marked sentence= A sentence that doesn’t follow the SVO order, normally used to emphasize an element of the sentence. Types of marked sentences: 1)Preposing/fronting/topicalization: emphasis placed on the topic or focus of a sentence by preposing it to the beginning of the sentence. ORDER: OSV Example: “This one she accepted” Unmarked: She accepted this one 2)Postposing/end shifting: The object or another element is shifted at the end of the sentence, and the sentence doesn’t follow the SVO order anymore. Example: “I made without delay all the changes” ORDER: S+V+modifier+O Unmarked: “I made all the changes without delay” 3)Left dislocation: An element of the sentence is dislocated to the left, and then is repeated by a pronoun. Example:” That money I gave to her, it has disappeared Unmarked: That money I gave to her has disappeared. 4)Right dislocation: An element of the sentence is dislocated to the right, and it is preceded by a pronoun. Example: They are still here, our friends Unmarked: Our friends are still here. 5)Inversion: The order of two elements of the sentence is inverted. Example: Seldom have i seen such things Unmarked: I have seldom seen such things. 6)Extraposition: An extraposition is a construction in which a clause that acts as a subject is moved (or extraposed) to the end of the sentence and replaced by dummy it (or empty it) in the initial position. Example: It is important to book early. Extraposition always Unmarked: To book early is important. begins with “it” 7)Cleft: A cleft sentence is a complex sentence in which a simple sentence is expressed using a main clause and a subordinate clause. Example: It was Tom that broke the window. Unmarked: Tom broke the window Cleft structure: It […] 8)Pseudo-cleft: Pseudo-cleft sentences are similar in function to cleft sentences, but they are formed with the pronoun “what “ Example: What Tom broke was the window Unmarked: Tom broke the window 9)Passive 10) Interrogatives and exclamations " 14 di 26

that [….] Pseudo-cleft structure: what-clause+ “be”+ phrase

CHAPTER 8: Syntactic trees Syntactic trees are useful to visualize the form of phrase and the syntactic relation between them. If you don’t know what a tree is, here there is a useful link : https://gawron.sdsu.edu/fundamentals/syntax/ syntax_homework_remedial.htm As we already said, forms are: NP VP AdjP AdvP PP and also: CP

terminology XP= head xp1,xp2= daughters to the head xp1 sister to xp2

We now see some basic tree structure: NP tree structure example : The lady the=determiner lady=noun The young lady the=det youn...