Non-Conventional Energy Resources PDF

Preview

Summary

Non-Conventional Energy Resources G.S. SAWHNEY Professor and Head Department of Mechanical Engineering Accurate Institute of Management and Technology Greater Noida Formerly Professor and Head Department of Mechanical Engineering GNIT, Greater Noida and LKIE, Ghaziabad New Delhi-110001 2012 NON-CONV...

Description

Non-Conventional Energy Resources

G.S. SAWHNEY Professor and Head Department of Mechanical Engineering Accurate Institute of Management and Technology Greater Noida Formerly Professor and Head Department of Mechanical Engineering GNIT, Greater Noida and LKIE, Ghaziabad

New Delhi-110001 2012

NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES G.S. Sawhney © 2012 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN-978-81-203-4609-3 The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher. Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus, New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Baba Barkha Nath Printers, Bahadurgarh, Haryana-124507.

CONTENTS

Preface

xi

1. ENERGY RESOURCES AND THEIR UTILISATION 1.1 1.2

Introduction 1 Energy Resources 1.2.1

1.3

1.4

1.6

11 12

12

Significance of Non-Conventional Energy Resources Energy Policy in India 13 World Energy Status 14 Indian Energy Scenario 15

Environment Aspects of Energy 1.6.1 1.6.2

1.7

11

Energy Intensity Energy Elasticity

Indian and Global Energy Resources 1.5.1 1.5.2 1.5.3 1.5.4

2

3

Thermal Energy 3 Hydel Energy 4 Nuclear Energy 5 Solar Energy 5 Wind Energy 6 Tidal Energy 8 Geothermal Energy 9 Ocean Energy 10

Energy Parameters 1.4.1 1.4.2

1.5

1

Classification of Energy Resources

Types of Energy Resources 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.3.4 1.3.5 1.3.6 1.3.7 1.3.8

Pollution 25 Greenhouse Effects

Energy Chain

12

25

25

26

2. SOLAR RADIATION 2.1 2.2

1–26

27–54

Introduction 27 Radiation Spectrum from Sun and Earth iii

27

iv

CONTENTS

2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10

Extraterrestrial Radiation and Solar Constant 29 Latitude and Longitude 33 Basic Sun–Earth Angles 34 Angle between Incident Beam and Normal to Inclined Surface (q) Local Apparent Time 38 Sunrise, Sunset and Solar Day Length 39 Intensity of Terrestrial Radiation 42 Solar Radiation Data 43

37

2.10.1 Monthly Average Daily Global Radiation ( H g ) on Horizontal Surface 44 2.10.2 Monthly Average Daily Diffuse Radiation on Horizontal Surface 45 2.10.3 Monthly Average Daily Global Radiation on Tilted Surface ( HT ) 45

2.11 Measurements of Solar Radiation Data

50

3. SOLAR ENERGY 3.1 3.2

Introduction 55 Solar Collectors 55 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 3.2.6 3.2.7 3.2.8 3.2.9 3.2.10 3.2.11 3.2.12 3.2.13 3.2.14

3.3

Classification of Solar Collectors 56 Flat Plate Collector 59 Modified Flat Plate Collector 60 Compound Parabolic Concentrator 61 Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrator 61 Linear Fresnel Lens Collector 62 Fixed Mirror Solar Concentrator 63 Paraboloidal Dish Collector 64 Hemispherical Bowl Mirror Concentrator 64 Circular Fresnel Lens Concentrator 65 Central Tower Receiver Collector 66 Comparison between Flat and Focussing Collectors Orientation of Flat Plate Collector 67 Collector Performance Testing 67

Solar Energy Storage 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3

3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15

55–86

66

69

Classification of Solar Energy Storage System Sensible Heat Storage 70 Latent Heat Storage 72

69

Solar Pond 74 Solar Water Heater 75 Solar Thermal Pump 76 Solar Furnace 77 Solar Passive Heating 78 Solar Passive Space Cooling 79 Solar Refrigeration and Cooling System 80 Solar Vapour Compression Refrigeration and Cooling Solar Cookers 83 Solar Distillation 84 Solar Thermal Power Plants 84 Solar Greenhouse 85

82

CONTENTS

4. SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM 4.1 4.2

Introduction 87 Solar Cell Fundamentals 4.2.1 4.2.2

4.3

4.4

4.5 4.6

87

Solar Cell 91 Solar PV Module Solar PV Panel Solar PV Array

94

Voltage–Current Characteristic of p-n Junction (Solar Cell) Energy Losses of Solar Cell 97 Maximising the Performance 99

Materials for Solar Cells Solar PV Systems 102 4.6.1 4.6.2 4.6.3 4.6.4 4.6.5 4.6.6 4.6.7 4.6.8 4.6.9

91

92 93 93

Solar Cell Characteristics 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3

87–105

Semiconductors 88 Photovoltaic Effect 90

Solar Cell, Module, Panel and Array 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4

95

100

Central Power Station System 102 Stand-Alone System 102 Grid Interactive Solar PV System 103 Small Consumer Systems 103 Hybrid Solar PV System 104 Advantages and Disadvantages of PV System Solar PV System and Cost 104 Solar PV Programme in India 105 Energy Payback Period of a Solar Cell 105

104

5. BIOGAS 5.1 5.2 5.3

5.4

Biogas 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4 5.4.5 5.4.6 5.4.7 5.4.8 5.4.9 5.4.10 5.4.11

5.5

106–127

Introduction 106 Photosynthesis 106 Biomass 107 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3

Biofuels 107 Biomass Resources 109 Advantages and Disadvantages of Biomass Energy

109

110 Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes 110 Anaerobic Digestion 110 Classification of Biogas Plants 114 Application of Biogas in IC Engine 118 Models of Biogas Plants 118 Biogas Plant in Hilly Area 118 By-Product of Digestion 119 Location of Biogas Plant 120 Size of Biogass Plant 120 Problems and Constraints in the Use of Biogas Community Biogas Plants 122

Biomass Conversion Technologies 5.5.1 5.5.2 5.5.3 5.5.4 5.5.5

v

121

122

Biomass Gasification 124 Energy Recovery from Urban Waste by Landfill Reactors Power Generation from Liquid Waste 125 Biomass Resource Development and Energy Plantation Biomass Energy Programme in India 127

124 126

vi

CONTENTS

6. WIND ENERGY 6.1 6.2

Introduction 128 Origin of Winds 128 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4 6.2.5 6.2.6

6.3 6.4

134

Energy Available in Wind 134 Terms and Definitions of Fluid Mechanics 135 Principle of Power Generation 139 Axial Thrust on Turbine 143 Torque Generated by Wind Turbine 145 Tip Speed Ratio for Maximum Output 146 Aerodynamic Considerations 147

Types of Windmills 6.5.1 6.5.2 6.5.3 6.5.4 6.5.5 6.5.6 6.5.7

6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9

Global Winds 129 Local Winds 129 Distribution of Wind Energy 129 Nature of Wind 130 Meterological Data about Wind Speed 130 Wind Speed Variations with Height 132

Wind Turbine Siting 134 Wind Turbine Aerodynamics 6.4.1 6.4.2 6.4.3 6.4.4 6.4.5 6.4.6 6.4.7

6.5

128–160

150

Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine 150 Rotors of HAWT 152 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine 153 Rotor of VAWT 154 Comparison of HAWT and VAWT 155 Savonius Rotor 156 Darrieus Rotor 156

Wind Energy Storage 157 Environmental Impacts of Wind Turbines Recent Development 158 Wind Energy Programme in India 159

157

7. ELECTROCHEMICAL EFFECTS AND FUEL CELLS 7.1 7.2

Introduction 161 Fuel and Oxidant 161 7.2.1

7.3

Primary and Secondary Fuel Cells

Fuel Cell 7.3.1 7.3.2 7.3.3 7.3.4 7.3.5 7.3.6 7.3.7 7.3.8 7.3.9 7.3.10 7.3.11 7.3.12

164

164

Principle of Fuel Cell 164 Efficiency of Fuel Cell 166 Types of Fuel Cells 169 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell Alkaline Fuel Cell 173 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell 174 Solid Oxide or Ceramics Fuel Cell 175 Regenerative Fuel Cell 176 Performance Limiting Factors of Fuel Cell Losses of a Fuel Cell 177 Advantages and Limitations of a Fuel Cell Application of a Fuel Cell 178

172

177 178

161–178

CONTENTS

8. HYDROGEN ENERGY 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4

179–186

Introduction 179 Hydrogen as a Source of Renewable Energy Production of Hydrogen 180 Storage of Hydrogen 182 8.4.1 8.4.2 8.4.3 8.4.4 8.4.5 8.4.6 8.4.7

179

Advances in Storage of Hydrogen 183 Hydrogen Powered Vehicles and Storage 184 Cost of Hydrogen Storage 184 Transportation or Delivery of Hydrogen 185 Hydrogen as Fuel and Safety Issues 185 Conversion of Hydrogen 186 Applications of Hydrogen 186

9. THERMOELECTRIC SYSTEMS FOR DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION 9.1 9.2 9.3

Introduction 187 Important Physical Effects Thermoelectric Generator 9.3.1 9.3.2 9.3.3

9.4

9.5

Materials for a Thermoelectric Generator 192 Characteristics of a Thermoelectric Generator 192 Applications of a Thermoelectric Generator 192

193

Principle of Operation of an MHD Generator 193 MHD Generator 195 Seeding of Carrier Gas in MHD Generator 196 Overall Power Cycle with MHD Converter 196 MHD Systems 197 Open Cycle Systems 197 Closed Cycle System 198 Materials for MHD Generators 200

Thermionic Power Conversion 9.5.1 9.5.2

200

Merits of Thermionic Converter 201 Applications of the Thermionic Converter

201

10. TIDAL POWER

203–211

10.1 Introduction 203 10.2 Origin of Tides 203 10.3 Tidal Energy 205 10.3.1 10.3.2 10.3.3 10.3.4 10.3.5

187–202

187 190

Magnetohydrodynamic Power Conversion 9.4.1 9.4.2 9.4.3 9.4.4 9.4.5 9.4.6 9.4.7 9.4.8

vii

Modes of Operation of Tidal Power Plant 207 Components of the Tidal Power Plant 207 Feasibility of the Tidal Power Plant 208 Merits of Tidal Energy 208 Limitations of Tidal Energy 208

10.4 Classification of Tidal Plant 10.4.1 Single Basin System 10.4.2 Double Basin System

209 209 210

10.5 Site Requirements 211 10.6 Tidal Power Development in India

211

viii

CONTENTS

11. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

212–222

11.1 Introduction 212 11.2 Resources of Geothermal Energy 11.3 Geothermal Power Plants 214

212

11.3.1 Hydrothermal Resources 214 11.3.2 Hot Dry Rock Resource 217 11.3.3 Comparison of Geothermal Power Plant with Convention Thermal Power Plant 218 11.3.4 Non-Electrical Applications of Geothermal Energy 218 11.3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy 219 11.3.6 Materials for Geothermal Plant Equipment 219 11.3.7 Environmental Problems from Geothermal Energy 220 11.3.8 Criteria for Selection of Geothermal Site 220 11.3.9 Potential of Geothermal Energy in India 221 11.3.10 Exploration and Development of Geothermal Resources 221

12. WAVE ENERGY

223–230

12.1 Introduction 223 12.2 Wave Energy and Power 223 12.3 Wave Energy Devices 228 12.3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Wave Energy

230

13. OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5

231–235

Introduction 231 Working Principle of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Systems 233 Status of OTEC Plants 234 Merits and Demerits of OTEC Plant 234

14. ENVIRONMENT AND KYOTO PROTOCOL 14.1 Introduction 236 14.2 Environmental Aspects 14.2.1 Greenhouse Effect 14.2.2 Global Warming

14.3 Kyoto Protocol

236–238

236 236 237

237

15. SMALL HYDRO RESOURCE 15.1 Introduction 239 15.2 Conversion of Hydropower

239–248 240

15.2.1 Turbines 241 15.2.2 Speed Control of Turbines 241 15.2.3 Suitability of Turbines 242

15.3 Small Hydropower Plants 15.3.1 15.3.2 15.3.3 15.3.4 15.3.5

231

242

Demerits of Small Hydropower Sources 243 Merits of Small Hydropower Resources 243 Bulb Turbine 244 Components of a Small Hydropower Plant 244 Designing of a Micro Hydel Scheme 245

CONTENTS

15.4 Concept and Potential of Micro Hydel in India 246 15.5 Research and Development in India 246 15.6 Micro Hydropower for Socio-Economic Development

247

16. ENERGY MANAGEMENT 16.1 Introduction 249 16.2 Energy Economics 16.2.1 16.2.2 16.2.3 16.2.4 16.2.5 16.2.6 16.3.1 16.3.2 16.3.3 16.3.4 16.3.5

249–265 250

Definitions 250 Energy Commodities and Energy Resources 250 Energy Conversion Processes 251 Demand for Energy 251 Energy Demand Substitution 252 Energy Efficiency Standards to Optimise Consumer Choices

16.3 Energy Conservation

BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX

252

253

Aspects of Energy Conservation Principles of Energy Conservation Energy Conservation Act 256 Cogeneration 257 Combined or Binary Cycle Plants

16.4 Energy Management and Audit 16.4.1 16.4.2 16.4.3 16.4.4 16.4.5 16.4.6 16.4.7 16.4.8

ix

253 254

258

260

Definition and Objectives of Energy Management 260 Energy Audit and Need 261 Types of Energy Audit 262 Preliminary Audit 262 Detailed Energy Audit 262 Methodology for Detailed Audit 263 Energy Efficiency in Indian Industry 264 Status of Energy-Efficient Technologies in India 264

267 269–272

PREFACE

Fossil fuels are fast depleting, which has led to all-round global efforts to harness alternative energy resources. These resources are called non-conventional energy resources. Every country has plan to develop these resources commercially. There is a need to have more awareness about these resources and technologies to harness them and generate energy. Therefore, the subject matter has been included in the syllabi for engineering and science courses. The book is primarily intended to cover the syllabi prescribed by all major technical universities. Non-conventional energy resources is, therefore, an important subject which has been given rightful weightage in all branches of the undergraduate engineering curriculum. Based on my teaching experience, I have tried to explain the principles and concepts of renewable energy resources in simple and clear terms. The endeavour is to present the subject matter in the most comprehensive and usable form. The book presents an exhaustive coverage, definitions, formulae and examples which are well supported by plenty of diagrams and problems to make the undergoing principles more comprehensive. The book is precise and easy to understand. Effort has been made to present the concepts in question-answer format so that students assimilate the knowledge and have clear understanding of the subject matter. I wish to place on record my sincere thanks to my wife, Jasbeer Kaur, for her patience shown throughout the preparation of the book. I am also thankful to my children Jasdev, Tejmohan, Puja and Nandini for their encouragement to spend my spare time in writing work. I have also got the valuable assistance from my faculty members, specially Mr. Subham Sharma, for the early completion of the book. I would appreciate constructive suggestions and objective criticisms from students and teachers alike with a view to further enhancing the usefulness of the book. Readers may mail their suggestions at my email address. G.S. Sawhney [email protected]

xi

CHAPTER

1

ENERGY RESOURCES THEIR UTILISATION

1.1

AND

INTRODUCTION

The production of electricity and its per capita consumption is regarded as the indication of the standard of living of people in a nation. Energy is a key input in the economic growth. The growth of a nation largely depends on the availability of energy. The energy consumption in the world has been increasing at an alarming rate for the past few decades. The conventional energy resources such as coal, wood, diesel, petrol, natural gas, etc. are depleting. It has been estimated that the conventional fuels may last for 5–6 decades only. To meet the major part of energy demand in future, every nation is making efforts to find non-conventional energy sources such as solar, wind, tidal and geothermal. Energy is defined as the capacity of a substance or a body to do work. Similarly, energy resources are the main sources of energy from which the energy can be extracted and utilised for mankind.

1.2

ENERGY RESOURCES

· What do you understand by energy resources? Energy resources are the main sources of energy from which the energy can be extracted and utilised for mankind. Energy is a key input in economic growth. The growth of a nation largely depends on the availability of energy resources.

1

2

NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

1.2.1

Classification of Energy Resources

• How can energy resources be classified? or · Discuss the primary and secondary energy resources. Also, describe the future of non-conventional energy resources in India. or · What are the conventional and non-conventional energy sources? Describe the fossil fuels as the conventional energy resources. The energy resources can be classified on the basis of usability of energy resources, traditional usage of energy resources, long-term availability of energy resources, commercial application of resources and origin of resources.

Primary and secondary energy resources (i) Primary resources. Resources available in the nature in the raw form are called primary resources. Fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas), uranium and hydropower are primary energy resources. These energy resources cannot be used in raw form. Primary energy resources have to be located, extracted, processed and converted into a suitable form before use. (ii) Secondary resources. Secondary energy resources are obtained form primary energy resources by processing. Processing helps in transformation of primary resources into the secondary or usable energy form so that it can be utilized by consumers. Electricity, steam, hot water, petrol, diesel, LNG and CNG are secondary energy resources.

Conventional and non-conventional energy resources (i) Conventional. Conventional energy resources are energy resources which have been traditionally used from many years. These resources are also widely used at present and likely to be depleted. (ii) Non-conventional. These are alternate energy resources to the conventional energy resources which are being considered to be used on large scale. The conventional energy resource are likely to be depleted in about 50–60 years and non-conventional energy resources should be fully developed by then to meet the energy requirement. The comparison of conventional and non-conventional energy resources is given in Table 1.1. TABLE 1.1

Comparison of conventional and non-conventional energy resources

Conventional resources Traditional These have been in use for many years These resources can be easily converted into mechanical energy These are likely to be depleted, that is, these have limited availability Coal, petrol, diesel, nuclear fuels CNG and LPG are conventional energy resources

Non-conventional resources Non-traditional These are not in routine use at present These resources require some costly method to be converted into mechanical energy These are non-depletable or may be available in vast quantities Solar, wind, tidal geothermal and biogas are non-conventional energy resources

ENERGY RESOURCES AND THEIR UTILISATION

3

Renewable and non-renewable energy resources (i) Renewable. Resources which can be renewed by nature again and again so that their supply is not adversely affected by the rate of t...