Physical Deathof Jesus Christ JAMA 1986 PDF

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On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ ArticleinJAMA The Journal of the American Medical Association · April 1986 DOI: 10.1001/jama.1986.03370110077025·Source: PubMed

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Special Communication

On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ William D. Edwards, MD; Wesley J. Gabel, MDiv; Floyd E. Hosmer, MS, AMI

·

Jesus of Nazareth underwent Jewish and Roman trials, was flogged, and was sentenced to death by crucifixion. The scourging produced deep stripelike lacerations and appreciable blood loss, and it probably set the stage for hypovolemic shock as evidenced by the fact that Jesus was too weakened to carry the crossbar (patibulum) to Golgotha. At the site of crucifixion his wrists were nailed to the patibulum, and after the patibulum was lifted onto the upright post, (stipes) his feet were nailed to the stipes. The major pathophysiologic effect of crucifixion was an interference with normal respirations. Accordingly, death resulted primarily from hypovolemic shock and exhaustion asphyxia. Jesus’ death was ensured by the thrust of a soldier’s spear into his side. Modern medical interpretation of the historical evidence indicates that Jesus was dead when taken down from the cross. (JAMA 1986; 255:1455-1463)

Talmud, and by the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, although the authenticity of portions of the latter is 26

problematic.

The Shroud of Turin is considered by many to represent the actual buri22

al cloth of Jesus, cations

and several public-

concerning

the

medical

as-

pects of his death draw conclusions 5,11

from this assumption. of

Turin

and

recent

The Shroud

archaeological

findings provide valuable information concerning 22-24

tices.

Roman

crucifixion

prac-

The interpretations of mod-

ern writers, based on a knowledge of THE LIFE and teachings of Jesus of

credibility of any discussion of Jesus’

science and medicine not available in

Nazareth have formed the basis for a

death will be determined primarily by

the first century, may offer addition-

major

world

the credibility of one’s sources. For

al

have

appreciably

this

mechanisms of Jesus’ death.

course

of

religion,

human

(Christianity)

influenced history,

the

and,

by

review,

includes

the

the

source

writings

material

of

ancient

insight

concerning

the

possible 2-17

When

taken

in

concert

certain

attitude

Christian and non-Christian authors,

facts—the extensive and early testi-

toward the sick, also have contributed

the writings of modern authors, and

mony

to the development of modern medi-

the

cine.

legal-historical

virtue

of

a

The

historical

compassionate

eminence figure

of

and

Jesus

the

as

a

suffering,

Shroud

of

27

investigation,

Turin.

1-40

method

Using

of

the

scientific

scholars have estab-

and controversy associated with his

lished the reliability and accuracy of

death has stimulated us to investi-

the ancient manuscripts.

gate, in an interdisciplinary manner, the

circumstances

crucifixion. intent

to

surrounding

Accordingly

present

not

a

it

is

his our

theological

most

extensive

and

be

found

in

detailed

the

New

Testament gospels of Matthew, Mark, 1

The other 23 books

the

of the New Testament support but do

physical death of the one called Jesus

not expand on the details recorded in

Christ.

the gospels. Contemporary Christian,

The Christ’s

source death

material

Jewish, and Roman authors provide

comprises

additional concerning a

body

of

insight

concerning

and

proponents

their

universal

figure;

the

ethic

of

the

gospel

writers, and the shortness of the time

extant manuscripts; and the confir-

historians

to

historically

SOURCES

cal

mation

are

Christian

acceptance of Jesus as a true histori-

Jesus

Luke, and John.

account of

both

descriptions of the life and death of

treatise but rather a medically, and accurate

of

opponents,

interval between the events and the

26,27,29,31

The

and

the

ings

of

the and

gospel

accounts

archaeological

by

find-

26-27

—ensure a reliable testimony

from which a modern medical interprettation of Jesus’ death may be made.

GETHSEMANE After Jesus and his disciples had observed

the

Passover

meal

in

an

first-century Jewish and Roman legal

upper room in a home in southwest

systems and the details of scourging

Jerusalem, they traveled to the Mount

literature and not a physical body or

and

Plu-

of Olives, northeast of the city (Fig 1).

its skeletal remains. Accordingly, the

tarch, and others refer to crucifixion

(Owing to various adjustments in the

crucifixion.

5

Seneca,

8,28

practices in their works.

From the Departments of Pathology (Dr. Edwards) and Medical Graphics (Mr. Hosmer), Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn; and the Homestead United Methodist Church, Rochester, Minn, and the West Bethel United Methodist Church, Bethel, Minn (Pasto r Gabel). Reprint requests to Department of Pathology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905 (Dr Edwards).

JAMA March 21, 1986—Vol 255, No. 11

Livy,

Specifical-

calendar, the years of Jesus’ birth and death

tioned by the Roman historians Cor-

ever, it is likely that Jesus was born

nelius

in either 4 or 6 BC and died in 30

Tacitus,

Pliny

the

Younger,

remain

11,29

controversial.

29

ly, Jesus (or his crucifixion) is men-

How-

and Suetonius, by non-Roman histori-

AD.

ans Thallus and Phlegon, by the satir-

ance in 30 AD, the Last Supper would

ist Lucian of Samosata, by the Jewish

have

During the Passover observ-

been

observed

on

Thursday,

Death of Christ—Edwards et al

1455

N

To Sychem and Damascus

W

0

500

1,000

E

S

1,500 Feet Fortress of

Meters 0

250

Possible

500

Antonia

Golgotha Garden of Gethsemane To Joppa 7 Traditional

4

5

Mount of Olives

Golgotha Suburb

(Calvary)

To Bethany 6

Herod Antipas’

Temple

Palace

2

Herod’s 3

Palace

Upper City

Kidron Valley

Lower City Caiaphas’ Residence 1

Upper Room

Hinnom V alley

To Bethlehem and Hebron

To Salt Sea

Fig 1.—Map of Jerusalem at time of Christ. Jesus left Upper Room and walked with disciples to Mount of Olives and Garden of Gethsemane (1), where he was arrested and taken first to Annas and then to Caiaphas (2). After first trial before political Sanhedrin at Caiaphas’ residence, Jesus was tried again before religious Sanhedrin, probably at Temple (3) Next, he was taken to Pontius Pilate (4), who sent him to Herod Antipas (5). Herod returned Jesus to Pilate (6), and Pilate finally handed over Jesus for scourging at Fortress of Antonia and for crucifixion at Golgotha (7). (Modified from Pfeiffer et al.30)

April 6 [Nisan 13], and Jesus would

have

hematidrosis

ably at the temple (Fig l), Jesus was

have been crucified on Friday, April 7

produced hypovolemia, we agree with

tried before the religious Sanhedrin

29

suggested

5

that

that Jesus’ actual blood loss

(with the Pharisees and the Saddu-

Jesus, apparently knowing that the

probably was minimal. However, in

cees) and again was found guilty of

time of his death was near, suffered

the cold night air,

great

duced chills.

[Nisan 14].

) At nearby Gethsemane,

mental

scribed

by

anguish,

the

and,

physician

as

de-

Luke,

his

Bucklin

1

it may have pro-

blasphemy,

TRIALS

1

sweat became like blood.

Soon

nomenon, bloody sweat (hematidrosis

crime

punishable

by

Roman Trials

Jewish Trials

Although this is a very rare phe-

a

1,5

death.

after

midnight,

Since permission for an execution Jesus

was

had

to

come 1

from

the

governing

or hemohidrosis) may occur in highly

arrested at Gethsemane by the tem-

Romans,

emotional states or in persons with

ple

to

morning by the temple officials to the

the

Praetorium of the Fortress of Anton-

18-20

officials

first

hemorrhage

sweat

Jewish high priest for that year (Fig

glands,

1

the skin becomes fragile and tender.

1).

Luke’s description supports the diag-

was

nosis

political

2,11

of

eccrine

hematidrosis

chromidrosis

low-green

sweat)

or

rather

(brown

or

than yel-

stigmatization

(blood oozing from the palms or elsewhere).

1456

18-21

Although

some

authors

Between 1 tried

to

taken

Annas

the

then

was

As a result of

into

and

and

bleeding disorders.

Caiaphas,

AM and daybreak, Jesus

before

Caiaphas

Sanhedrin 1

and

and

was

the

found

Jesus was taken early in the

ia, the residence and

governmental

seat of Pontius Pilate, the procurator of Judea (Fig 1). However, Jesus was presented

to

Pilate

not

as

a

blas-

The guards then

phemer but rather as a self-appointed

blindfolded Jesus, spat on him, and

king who would undermine the Ro-

guilty of blasphemy.

struck 1

fists.

JAMA March 21, 1986—Vol 255, No. 11

him

in

the

face

with

their

Soon after daybreak, presum-

man

1

authority.

Pilate

made

no

charges against Jesus and sent him to

Death of Christ—Edwards et al

Direction of Whip Against Victim’s Back

Small Bone Leather

(Pieces)

Thongs Wooden

Metal Balls

Roman

Handle

Legionnaire

MAYO ©1985

Flagrum

Flogging Top View

Direction of Whip Marks

Victim

Fig 2.—Scourging. Left, Short whip (flagrum) with lead balls and sheep bones tied into leather thongs. Center left, Naked victim tied to flogging post. Deep stripelike lacerations were usually associated with considerable blood loss. Center right, View from above, showing position of lictors. Right, Inferomedial direction of wounds.

Herod 1

dea.

Antipas,

the

tetrarch

of

Ju

Herod likewise made no official

charges and then returned Jesus to Pilate find

1

(Fig

no

1).

basis

Again, for

a

Pilate legal

could charge

his closest friends (the disciples), and

(lictors)

a

positions.

physical

beating

(after

the

first

or

by

5,7,11,28

one

who

The

severity

alternated of

the

Jewish trial). Also, in the setting of a

scourging depended on the disposition

traumatic and sleepless night, he had

of

been

weaken

forced

to

walk more than

2.5

the

lictors the

and

was

victim

to

intended a

state 8

to

just

against Jesus, but the people persist-

miles (4.0 km) to and from the sites of

short of collapse or death.

ently

the various trials (Fig 1). These phys-

scourging, the soldiers often taunted

and

ical and emotional factors may have

their victim.

flogged

rendered Jesus particularly vulnera-

demanded

finally

granted

handed

over

crucifixion. their

Jesus

Pilate

demand to

be

25

(scourged) and crucified. (McDowell

ble

has reviewed the prevailing political,

effects of the scourging.

religious,

and

economic

climates

to

the

and Bucklin ous

of

the

Jewish

As the Roman soldiers repeatedly

and

Roman trials.)

The rigors of Jesus’ ministry (that

contusions,

Flogging was a legal preliminary to 28

Roman

execution,

and

the

victim’s

back

with

full

force, the iron balls would cause deep

Scourging Practices

every

Health of Jesus

struck

SCOURGING

has described the vari-

illegalities

11

Medical Aspects of Scourging

hemodynamic

in

Jerusalem at the time of Jesus’ death, 5

adverse

After the

only

and

the

leather

thongs

and sheep bones would cut into the 7

skin and subcutaneous tissues.

Then,

women and Roman senators or sol-

as the flogging continued, the lacera-

diers

desertion)

tions would tear into the underlying

The usual instrument

skeletal muscles and produce quiver-

(except

in 11

were exempt.

cases

of

2, 7,25

is, traveling by foot throughout Pal-

was a short whip (flagellum or flagel-

ing ribbons of bleeding flesh.

estine)

any

lum) with several single or braided

and blood loss generally set the stage

major physical illness or a weak gen-

leather thongs of variable lengths, in

for circulatory shock.

eral

is

which small iron balls or sharp pieces

blood loss may well have determined

reasonable to assume that Jesus was

of sheep bones were tied at intervals

how long the victim would survive on

in good physical condition before his

(Fig 2).

would

have

constitution.

precluded

Accordingly,

it

5,7,11

Occasionally, staves also

8,12

walk to Gethsemane. However, dur-

were used.

ing the 12 hours between 9...