Physiological Psychology Exam 1 Notes PDF

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Physiological Psychology Exam 1 Notes Lecture 1 Physiological Psychology (biopsychology, psychobiology) 

The study of the process of the nervous system and how it is related to psychology (brain and behavior)

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Branch of psychology that studies the relationship between behavior and body (brain)

Lecture 2 Neuroscience 

Multidisciplinary study of the nervous system (all aspects: anatomical, chemical, physiological, developmental, etc.)

Mind Brain Problem 

What is the nature of the mind and the brain?

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What is the relationship between the mind and the brain? o Two philosophical views 

Dualism: 

Mind and brain belong to two separate worlds: non-physical vs. physical world)

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The mind controls the brain by “interacting” with it

Monism

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Mind and brain belong to the same world (physical world = materialism)

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The mind is the “product” of physical processes in the brain

Rene Descartes 

17th century philosopher

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Dualist: mind (non-physical)  body (physical)

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Body of every organism (human too) is a machine o Can discover how the machine is built and how it works

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In humans, the mind interacts with the body at a single point in the brain (pineal gland)

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Put emphasis on the physical explanation of behavior

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Provided a model of how the nervous system works

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Descartes’ Hydraulic Model (incorrect) o Nerves are hollow tubes where a fluid (“animal spirit”) flows o Pineal gland pumps the fluid through brain and nerves o Mind (soul) tilts the pineal gland to direct fluid to specific nerves  specific muscles inflate (move) o Model can be tested, which is why it is important 

Galvani (1700s) & his frogs: nerves are like wires conducting electricity 

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This proved Descartes wrong

Helmholtz (1800s): how come nerves conduction speed is only 90 Ft/sec 

This proves Galvani wrong

Model 

Proposed mechanism for how something works

Lecture 3 Nature & Nurture, Heredity & Environment, Innate & Learned 

Basic philosophical questions driving psychology (along with mind/body problems) o How much of brain and behavior is due to heredity? o How much of brain and behavior is due to environment? o How do heredity and environment interact?

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Must understand basic genetics to study brain and behavior

Genetics 

Gene: unit of heredity o Found on chromosomes (inside the nucleus of each cell)

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Humans have 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs

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A gene is a portion of chromosomes

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A chromosome is composed of DNA

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DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) o Double stranded chain of molecules (bases) o Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine

o The order in which T, A, C, G appear forms the code that carries all genetic information

Genes and their Effects 

Dominant: produces its effects regardless of whichc gene it is paired with

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Recessive: produces its effects only when paired with the same recessive gene on the other chromosome

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Heterozygous: different genes

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Homozygous: identical genes

Microscopic Level 

Neurons: specialized cells that receive information and send it to other cells o Carry information within the brain and throughout the rest of the body o About 100 billion neurons in the brain

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Glial cells: cells that provide structural and functional support for neurons

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Motor neuron: receives information from other neurons, carries information to muscle or gland cells

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Sensory neuron: receives a particular type of sensory info, carries information to other neurons

Lecture 4 

Interneuron: connect one neuron to another in a particular part of the central nervous system (CNS)

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Glial Cells o Oligodendrocytes: build myelin around axons in brain and spinal cord o Schwann cells: build myelin around axons in the periphery

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Neural Membrane: critical for the neuron’s ability to carry information o Phospholipid (fat derivatives) molecules 

Heads are attracted to water  orient toward it

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Tails are repelled by water  orient away

o Protein molecules  

Channels and pumps

Polarization: difference in electrical charge (voltage) between the inside and outside of the cell

Resting potential: difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of the membrane of a neuron at rest 

Unequal distribution of ions on the two sides of the membrane o Atoms or molecules that are + or – charged (lost or acquired electrons) o Organic anions (A-), Chloride anions (Cl-) o Sodium cations (NA+), Potassium cations (K+) o Membrane is selectively permeable  some chemicals can pass through more freely than others 

Protein molecules embedded in the membrane 

-Na+ channels (closed at rest), K+ channels (slightly leaky at rest)

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Na+/K+ pump: repeatedly moves 3 Na+ out of the neuron and 2 K+ inside the neuron at rest

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K+ ions: attracted inside by electron gradient, outside by concentration gradient  for the K+ the two gradients are almost in balance

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Na+ ions: attracted inside by both electrical gradient and concentration gradients

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Na+ and K+ channels are voltage-activated  their permeability depends on the voltage (potential) across the membrane

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Depolarization: decrease in polarization

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Hyperpolarization: increase in polarization

Lecture 5 Action Potential 

Abrupt depolarization and slight reversal of the usual polarization of the membrane

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Allows the neurons to send signals over long distances

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No polarization

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Occurs only in axons (not in dendrites or soma)

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Its strength is independent of the intensity of the stimulus (all or none law)

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It does not decay as it travels down an axon (nondetcremental)

o Phases:

Graded Potential 

Can occur in axon, dendrites, and soma

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It strength depends on the intensity of the stimulus

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It decays as it propagates (decremental)

Myelination and Conduction Speed of Action Potential 

Myelin produced by glial cells (oligodendrocytes and schwann) \

Lecture 6 Communication Between Neurons 

Electric current (until 1920s)

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Chemical signals (1950s)

Chemical Synapses o Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP): partial depolarization (hypopolarization) of the postsynaptic membrane 

Makes an action potential more likely to occur

o Inhibitory post synaptic potential (IPSP): hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane 

Makes an action potential less likely to occur in the post synaptic neuron

Lecture 7 Postsynaptic Integration

o A typical neuron receives EPSPs and IPSPs from = 1000 other neurons o EPSPs and IPSPs are combined at the axon hillock in 2 ways: o Temporal summation combines PSPs arriving a short time apart o Spatial summation combines PSPs arriving at the same time from different locations on dendrites and soma

What happens to the neurotransmitter left in the synaptic cleft? o Molecules are reabsorbed by the terminal and repackaged into vesicles (reuptake) o In some cases, they are first broken down into simpler components o Absorbed by glial cells

Synaptic Modulation: Adjustment of activity occurring at a synapse o Axosomatic synapse (presynaptic excitation/inhibition): between the terminal button of one neuron and soma of another neuron o Axodendritic synapse: between the terminal button of one neuron and dendrite of another neuron o Axoaxonic synapse: between the terminal button of one neuron and terminal button of another neuron o Increase in the relase of neurotransmitter by the presynaptic neuron = presunaptic excitation

o Decrease in the relase of nerotransmitter by the presynaptic neuron = presynaptic inhibiton o Autoreceptors: special protein in the presynaptic membrane – sense the amount of neurotransmitter in the cleft o Axoaxonic synapse and autoreceptors regulate the amount of transmitter in the cleft o Receptors in postsynaptic membrane – change in sensitivity or in numbers to compensate for unusual increases or decreases of neurotransmitter in the cleft

Neurotransmitters o The chemical signals that released by one neuron at the synapse and that affect another neuron

o Agonist: chemical that mimics or increases the effect of a neurotransmitter o Morphine activates the receptors for endorphins o Antagonist: a chemical that blocks the effect of a neurotransmitter o Curare block acetylcholine receptors at the muscles  paralysis

Lecture 8 Structure and Function of the Nervous System o Microscopic level o Basic structure/function of a single neuron and its interaction with another neuron o Macroscopic level o How billions of neurons are grouped into functional components that make up the nervous system

Terms of Anatomical Direction o Neuroaxis: an imaginary line drawn through the center of the CNS, from the bottom of the spinal cord to the front of the forebrain

Central Hemisphere

o Outer surface is the cortex – wrinkled with ridges and grooves o Ridges = gyrus o Groove = sulcus o Cortex mainly made of unmyelinated cell bodies o Gray matter (appears grayish in color) o In center of gyruses are myelinated axon pathways o White matter...