Praxis 5005- Science (Kelly\'s Notes) PDF

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SCIENCE PRAXIS 5005 Created on 5/25/2020 EARTH & SPACE: - PALEONTOLOGY: Studies the history of life on Earth. - Earth is believed to be 4.5 billion years old. - EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD: Deep w/in the Earth, protects the Earth from harmful Solar Wind particles. Responsible for the Northern Lights (Aurora Borealis) - SOLAR WIND: Charged particles escape form sun’s gravitational pull. - What would be most different about an object on Mars than Earth-Weight. - 4 inner planets= solid, 4 outer=gas (MVEM(Mars)JSUN) - SUPER NOVA: When a star explodes. Create almost all heat elements in world. ASTRONOMY: The study of space. SUN: Star at the center of Earth’s solar system. Hydrogen & helium. 109 Earths would fit. NUCLEAR  FUSION: How the sun shines and produces heat. When lighter elements become heavier. - Earth is much closer to the sun that is to other stars. -RADIATION: Heat comes from sun to earth. -Includes asteroids and comets, small rocky or icy objects that orbit the sun. Clustered in the asteroid belt (btwn.  the orbits of Mars and Jupiter). -Our solar system is part of a bigger star system called a GALAXY: Made up of stars, dust, & gas (the galaxy that is home to Earth: Milky Way). - Planet most like Earth’s size: Venus. -COMET: Mostly made of ice, dust, gas. -METEROID: Light flashing in sky - If you drop ball from space: fall slower/take longer. -ABSOLUTE MAGNITUDE: Light emitted by star - Star explodes 15 light yrs. away, we see it in 15yrs. -Venus: Planet that orbits closet to Earth. Most like Earth’s size - Jupiter has the shortest days. - Mercury: Terrestrial planet -Uranus: Planet w/ abnormal tilt on axis -The tilt of the Earth’s axis causes days/times to differ.

-Burning fossil fuels & volcanic activity= carbon dioxide on earth’s atmosphere. -Largest planet furthest from the sun: Neptune (4th  largest in Solar system). Smallest of the gas giants but termed “ice giant along with Uranus. Color is b/c of methane. Longest orbit around the sun. Smaller than gas giants: Saturn and Jupiter. -It takes Earth one day to rotate on its axis. It takes one year for the Earth to revolve around the Sun (The cycle of night and day and seasonal cycle are determined by this and seasons are caused by the Earth’s tilt). The moon revolves around Earth in one month (27 days). - Earth is much closer to the sun it is to other stars. -Earth sees different moon phases b/c the sun lights different parts of the moon. - Nitrogen makes up 78% (Earth’s largest quantity of gas) of the Earth’s atmosphere. -LUNAR ECLIPSE: When the Earth moves btwn. the moon and the sun (Sun, Earth, Moon). SOLAR ECLIPSE: When the moon lines up btwn. Earth and the sun (blocking sunlight/cast shadow over earth). TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE= NEW MOON. - Carbon is the most common element in the universe. - BLACK HOLE: A massive star with a gravitational field so strong that even light cannot escape. -AURORA: Occurs when particles from the solar wind are trapped in the Earth’s magnetic field. EARTH’S LAYERS: -CRUST: Everything we can directly see and study. It is cracked, split into tectonic plates. The edges of plates go under the ocean, called contintental shelves. 2 TYPES: 1) Oceanic: Bottom of oceans, below continental crust. Consists of: Basalt 2) Continental: Thicker on land. C  ontains: Granite. - THE MANTLE: Thickest layer of Earth (84% of Earth’s volume). Always in motion. Divide into layers based on seismologic properties. A) UPPER MANTLE: Extends from where the Crust ends. Is sticky but formed from rock (Peridotite). B) LOWER MANTLE: Extends from Upper Mantle. Made up of Magnesium. 3)  THE CORE: The inner and outer core works together as the temps cool down, more of the outer core develops and becomes part of the inner core. A) INNER CORE: Solid. Temperatures and pressures are extreme. Solid inner core rotates faster within the outer the outer molten core. b) OUTER CORE: Solid, 6,000ft below. Made of iron. Low viscosity but certainly not liquid. Malleable. Site of violent convection (transfer of heat by the movement of a fluid (liquid or gas) btwn. areas of different pressure). The churning of the outer core is responsible for the Earth’s magnetic field. - LITHOSPHERE: Solid, outer part of the Earth’s surface (Crust and Upper Mantle) Includes tectonic  plates). LAYERS OF EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE: (FIRST-LAST): ATMOSPHERE: Layer of gases surrounds the Earth. Retained by Earth’s gravitational pull. Where m  ajority of Earth’s nitrogen is found (78%) 21% Oxygen.1) TROPHOSPHERE: Lowest layer of atmosphere, contains weather. Gets colder as you go up. 80% of Earth’s atmosphere. 2) STRATOSPHERE: Temp. gets warmer as you go up. Ozone layer. Protects from UV rays. 3) EXOSPHERE: Highest layer. Planet’s first line of defense against sun’s rays, meteors, asteroids. End of atmosphere, beginning of space. 4) THERMOSPHERE: Very Hot. Has Aurora Borealis.

- BIOSPHERE: Where life exists.

.BUILDING UP LAND INQUIRY: EXPLAINATION OF EARTH’S CHANGING CRUST: When rocks melt underground, magma (thick, fiery liquid) is formed. Hot gases and steam that are released when rocks melt, mix with magma and build great pressure. This pressure forces the agma to squeeze into cracks or weak places under the Earth’s crust. Magma may push up and bend rock layers above w/out coming to the surface. This can make a dome mtn. Earthquakes may also change the Earth’s surface with the moving of the tectonic plates. -Most recently found parts of earth’s crust: Mid ocean ridge. - PANGEA: ALFRED WEGENER’S belief that continents were once a huge landmass (supercontinent). -CONTINTENTAL DRIFT: Slow movement of tectonic plates, gradually shifting continents to their current positions. Continents are still moving. EARTHQUAKES: happen along  plate boundaries, when the earth’s crusts breaks under the strain of deforming forcing. -FAULT: Cracks in the earth’s crust. Where parts of the crust may move horizontally, vertically, or diagonally. BLOCK MTS. When large blocks of rock are uplifted and titled sideways. Develop through tilted or vertical movements along a fault (Sierra Nevada Range). FOLDING: Mts. that develop when forces push parts of the crust into giant wrinkles (Appalachians). -DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES: Occurs when tectonic plates are moving away from one another. Can form new ridges or ocean basins. (East African Rift Valley) - CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES: 2 tectonic plates collide and one plate is pushed upward on top of the other, forming mts. OR one is pushed down, forming trenches. The plate pushed downwards melts into the fiery mantle. - TRANSFORM PLATE BOUNDARIES: When plates move in opposite directions along a boundary. (San Andres Fault) -OCEAN FLOORS: Form when 2 plates drift apart. Magma pushed up from the mantle and fills the gap btwn. plates.

VOLCANOES: Formed by the moving DIVERGENT/CONVERGENT plate boundaries and HOT SPOT HOT SPOT: Hot upwelling areas of magma in the mantle. Magma rises through plates of Earth’s Lithosphere. As plates move across the hot spots. New volcanoes form. EX: Hawaiian Islands. Vents in the Earth’s crust that allow molten rock to reach the surface, mainly occurs along the edges of tectonic plates. - RING OF FIRE: A string of underwater volcanoes and earthquake sites around the edges of the Pacific Ocean. (Runs through 15 countries including USA, Indonesia, Mexico, Japan, Canada, Guatemala, Russia, Chile, Peru, and Philippines). Hawaii sits smack dab in the middle of the ROF. - Most of the active volcanoes on earth are underwater. -Adds new rock to surface=volcanic activity. - COMPOSITE VOLCANO (STRATO-VOLCANO): Cone-shaped, w/ steep sides. Made of layers of solid lava, ash, and rock. - SHIELD VOLCANO: Dome shaped, w/ sloping side, made mostly of fluid lava flows. -CINDER VOLCANO: Small, steep hill formed by ash and debris surrounding a single lava vent and often has crater at the top. - An earthquake’s magnitude refers to the energy released during the earthquake. FOUR MAJOR TIME PERIODS IN EARTH’S HISTORY: 1) PRECAMBRIAN ERA: Earth’s formation until life began to appear. 2) PLAEOZOIC ERA: Plants and animals emerged. About 95% of all life on Earth became extinct at the end of this period. 3) MESOZIC ERA: Age of the dinosaurs. Their extinction is believed to be caused by an asteroid. 4) CENOZOIC ERA: Current time period. Birds, flowering plants, mammals (including humans). WEATHERING AND EROSION: Continuous process - WEATHERING: Breaking down of rocks into smaller parts. EROSION: Includes weathering plus the transporting weathered material from one place to another (actions of water, wind, & glaciers). Water is the most erosive force on earth. -Falling rain picks up small amount of carbon dioxide in the air and forms carbonic acid. Slowly wears down Limestone. - CHEMICAL WEATHERING: Oxygen and water in the air + rock surfaces=rust. Reddish soils contain oxidized iron compounds. - Frozen water contributes to weathering b/c many ricks are porous. As absorbed water expands, bits of rock are broken off. Ice may wedge apart cracked rocks.

- EXFOLIATION OF ROCKS: is caused when the difference btwn. the hot surface and the cooler interior of a rock produce strains that cause parts to flake off. - WIND EROSION became apparent to Americans during the Dust Bowl (1934-1935). Prairie lands originally covered by grass, had been broken up for agriculture. A combo of dry weather and marginal farming practiced in the most destructive dust storm ever seen in the U.S. -GLACIAL EROSION: Huge deposits of snow build up when snowfall exceeds the melting rate. Snow compacts into ice moving the glacier slowly downhill. When glaciers move, their tremendous weight scoops out basins and levels hills. As they melt, huge deposits of soil and rocks are left at the sides and leading edge. Effects of glaciation: New England and the N. central states. Motion of glaciers is caused by erosion. -CONTINENTAL GLACIERS: Large glaciers. Much of them covered N. America but now cover much of Greenland and Antarctica. Gravity forces these glaciers to spread out as more snow piles on top. INTERPLANETARY WEATHERING: Involves the study of the samples of soils and rocks that the Apollo astronauts retrieved from the surface of the moon. Allowed scientists to understand the effect of impacts and solar wind on the moon. Recently, GALILEO spacecraft images of asteroids 951 Gaspra and 243 Ida revealed to geologists that these asteroid surfaces undergo space weathering. GALILEO and Cassini spacecrafts may provide results for space weathering about surfaces such as the icy moons of Jupiter and Saturn. SOIL AND IT’S MAKEUP - Not until decomposed plant and animal matter is added (or manufactured chemicals applied) does soil become productive enough to support agriculture. - HUMUS: Organic matter that supplies plants with nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, & other essential elements. The decomposition of organic material is done by soil bacteria. Acids released in decomposition also dissolve other minerals in the soil particles. Humus retains water (keeps soil from drying out). The darkish color of humus soil absorbs sunlight which speeds up plant growth and reduces seed failure. -IMPORTANCE OF EARTHWORMS: Break up soil and allow air & water to reach plant roots. As they eat through soil, they mix it and leave castings that contain rich fertilization ingredients. - SOIL MAKEUP: Organic (once living), broken down rock. Pebbles settle first, followed by sand, silt, and clay. Humus at top. SILT and CLAY have small particles that retain water. Having been eroded from rocks rich in minerals, they contain elements that plants need for healthy growth. SAND or CLAY soil lacks porosity (not good for watering plants). - Farmers put pesticides and fertilizers in their soil, causes water pollution. - TO PRESERVE SOIL: 1) TERRACE FARMING: Sloped plain that has been cut into a series of flat surfaces or platforms. Preserves topsoil. 2)CONTOUR PLOWING: Used to plow around hilly land to eliminate gullies being formed during rain or irrigation.3) STRIP CROPING: Alternates a row crop that has much care soil exposed (corn) with a ground cover crop (clover). Reduces wind erosion.4) TREE WINDBREAK: Helps if a field is located where a strong wind usually blows in one direction.5) CHECK DAMS: Stones or

logs may be used to slow water in a stream or prevent a gully from widening. 6)RESIDUE MANAGEMENT: Does away with the plow. Leaves the residue from harvested crops on the field to hold soil and moisture. Tractor pulled machines gouge places for seeds which then sprout and grow through the decomposing residue. ROCK CYCLE: - ROCK: Naturally occurring solid. Can be inorganic or organic and is composed of one or more minerals. Classified based on how they were formed. 3 TYPES OF ROCKS: 1) IGNEOUS: Result of tectonic processes that brings magma (melted rock) to the earth’s surface. Can form either above or below the surface. Forms crystal like, glassy rocks when magma cools. EX: Granite, Basalt, Pumice 2) SEDIMENTARY: Formed when rock fragments/ sediments are compacted as a result of weathering and erosion. Chane by pressure. Usually found in layers, older layers at bottom. EX: Limestone, Dolemite, Sandstone. 3) METAMORPHIC: Form where extreme temps. and pressure change the structure of preexisting rocks. EX: Slate, Marble. Limestone can change into marble. Sandstone can change into Quartz. ROCK CYCLE: How rocks form & break down

MINERAL: Naturally occurring, solid, crystalline structure. Found in Earth’s crust. Granite- Mica and Feldspar. EX: Gold, Copper, Nickel, Diamond, Lead. . ROCK RECORD: What Paleontologists use to retain biological history in the form of FOSSILS: Preserved remains and traces of ancient life. Can only be found in SEDIMENTARY ROCK. Made of animal bones, water, mud, silt. Can be used to learn about the evolution of life including bacteria, plants, & animals. 1st fossil found: Amphibians. - CHEMICAL WEATHERING: Break up of rocks by air/water caused by chemicals. Water is most related to this. MECHANICAL WEATHERING: Break up of rocks caused by temp. GEOSPHERE: Minerals and rocks found on Earth. - Where to find water aquifers: porous, permeable rocks. - Warm, moist climates- most weathering. Hot, dry climates- little weathering. - MOHS HARDNESS SCALE: Measures whether harder materials can scratch softer ones. HYDROLOGY:

- HYDROLOGY: The study of water on Earth. HYDROSPHERE: All the bodies of water on earth. OCEANS are the largest bodies of water. - Oceans= 71% of Earth’s surface and 97% of Earth’s water. - Best fishing found on along the Continental Shelf. - Pacific Ocean=Largest Ocean TIDES: From the gravitational pull of the moon. CURRENTS:  Movements of ocean water caused by differences in salt or temp. WAVES: Carry energy through the water; caused by wind blowing. - OTHER BODIES OF WATER: Lakes (freshwater), seas (saltwater), rivers (rain that falls on land), Streams (Moving bodies of water that flow into bigger bodies of water), watershed/drainage basin )When all the rain that falls on a given area of land flows into a single body of water), groundwater( water stored underground in rick formations called aquifers). -Much of Earth’s water is stored as ice. - WATER CYCLE: Circulation of water throughout the Earth’s surface, atmosphere, and hydrosphere. Water on Earth evaporates (liquid to gas) and becomes water vapor. Water vapor comes together to form clouds. When it cools, water vapor condenses into a liquid (precipitation). Precipitation replenishes ground water and water features. METEROLOGY: The study of weather - WEATHER: Determined by humidity (amount of water vapor in the air) and temp. CLIMATE: Long-term weather condition in a location. CLIMATE ZONE: Large area that has similar avg. temp and precipitation. - JET STREAM: Strong winds in atmosphere. Huge impact on our weather and climate. - CLIMATE ZONES: 3 major: Polar, temperate, tropical. Divided into subclimates: Tropical: warm temps. Divided into wet, tropical wet & dry, semiarid, and arid. TEMPERATE: Mod. Climate. Divided into Mediterranean, humid subtropical, marine W. Coast, humid continental, and subartic. POLAR: Cold temp. Divided into tundra, highlands, nonpermanent ice, ice cap, experience long, dark winters sue to the tilt of the axis. WARM FRONT: Warm air moves over and replaces cold air. COLD FRONT: Cold air moves under and replaces warm air. ISOBAR: Equal barometric pressures. - Temp, pressure, density does not increase as altitude increases in the troposphere. - CLOUD: Made up of water droplets or ice crystals. Defined by location in sky and shapes. CIRRUS CLOUD: Highest in sky, then & wispy, not much precipitation. STRATUS:  Flat, wispy, white or gray, lower level of sky. CUMULUS: Tall, puffy, dark at bottom, white at top. NIMBUS: Have a lot of water vapor (most precipitation). ALTO PREFFIX: Middle of the sky, produce precipitation that does not reach ground. - SPRING EQUINOX: 12hr day/12hr night.

- SUMMER SOLSTACE: Tropic of Cancer. Sun directly overhead at noon. Beginning of summer in N. latitudes June 21st - WINETR SOLSTACE: Tropic of Capricorn. Sun is directly overhead at noon. Beginning of Winter in N. Hemisphere. Dec. 21. LIFE SCIENCE: - HOMEOSTASIS: Equilibrium maintained by healthy living organisms. - BIOMOLECULES: - CARBS: Sugars (source of energy). LIPIDS: Fats. Stores energy, helps with cell function. PROTEINS: Composed of amino acids. ENZYME: Special type of protein, can cause or speed up a chemical reaction. Important in the digestive system b/c the help break down & extract energy from different kind of food. - NUCLEIC ACIDS: DNA and RNA. Store genetic code which is info for an organism to function. DNA and RNA- made up of small molecules called nucleotides. Linked together by the dbl. helix. DNA: 4 types of nucleotides: adenine, cytosine, guanine, & thymine. RNA: Subs uracil for thymine. - NUCLEUS: Membrane bound body that holds a cell’s DNA. Where nucleic acids are stored in some organisms. Where DNA is packed into units called chromosomes. Separate from cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells. . STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELL: - Mitochondria: Produces energy - ORGANISM: Living things w/one cell. Smallest unit of life. Can reproduce on its own. UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS: Amorbas. Made of one cell. MULITCELLULAR  ORGANISMS: Many cells. - 2 TYPES OF CELLS: 1) PROKARYOTIC: No Nucleus. Some single cell organisms (bacteria & prokaryotes). 2) EUKARYOTIC: In both plants and animals. Contain nucleus where genetic material is stored. Found in multicellular organisms. - CELLS: Inside cell membrane (protective covering). Consists of cytoplasm and genetic material (DNA). Basic structure of every living organism. - CELL DIVISION (mitosis): Produces two cells with the same DNA as the original cell. 5 STEPS: 1) PROPHASE: Cell gets ready to divide to duplicate DNA. 2) METAPHASE: Chromosomes line up in pairs along the central axis of the cell. 3) ANAPHASE: When pairs begin to split, w/ one of the chromosomes moving to one side of the cell, and one to the other. 4) TELEPHASE: Once split, the cell membrane splits and 2 new cells are formed. 5) INTERPHASE: The 2 new cells return to normal resting state. ACRONYM to remember steps I Picked My Apples Today. Mitosis= 2xs as many offspring, genetically identical, cell division= Asexual. Mitosis: produces 2 daughter cells that have the same number of chromosomes in the parent cell. -MEOSIS: Formation of reproductive cells (gametes=egg and sperm). 2 parents/not identical-new combo of genes-DNA, genes= Sexual. PHASES: 1  ) Chromosomes are duplicated, pairs of choromosomes align & exchange genetic material w/ one another during the prophase. 2) Metaphase, anaphase, & telophase proceed like mitosis. 3) The interphase btwn. the two division processes is short, DNA not duplicated

before 2nd  division cycle. Instead, each chromosome divides in half, each new cell gets ½ of the genetic material contained in the original parent cell. - ZYGOTE: When egg is fertilized by sperm. ½ of chromosomes come from father, ½ from mother. Repr...