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Ancient Society: Sparta ➔ Spartans were very secretive and left few written records ➔ They were masters of propaganda and deception Origins: ◆ Spartans descended from fierce warlike people called the Dorians ◆ One group of Dorians settled in 5 villages in the South of the Peloponnese. Eventually the five villages came together to form the city state of Sparta ◆ This group of Dorians gradually took over the surrounding lands and forced the people they conquered to work for them as slaves (helots).

Geographical Context The geographical setting, natural features and resources of ancient Sparta Geographical Setting and Natural Features ➔ Sparta was located towards the north of the Lakonia Region in the Peloponnese ➔ Spartans were usually referred to as Lacedaemonians ➔ The Eurotas River provided much-needed water ➔ Extreme variations in climate = snow and extreme heat ➔ The Mountains: Arcadian, Parnon, Taygetos ◆ Rugged mountains provided a natural barrier to the valley of Sparta and they therefore didn’t need to build defensive walls ◆ Mountains separated Sparta from the rest of Greece ➔ According to Strabo who quotes Euripides ◆ “Lakonia had many earthquakes” ◆ “Lakonia has much arable land but it is not easy to cultivate” Resources ➔ Mining: ◆ Porphyry – an igneous rock used to build columns, vases, and sarcophagus ◆ Marble – quarried in the mountain, used for buildings ◆ Iron ore used to make bronze (armoury and weaponry) ◆ Copper and Lead were also mined ◆ Limestone and Clay were also used for pottery ➔ Crops: ◆ Rich agricultural land allowed for the growth of wheat, olives, grapes, figs ◆ Orchards and vineyards ➔ Animals: ◆ Sheep and goats = wool and milk/cheese ◆ Pigs = meat and leather ◆ Bees = Sparta was renowned for its honey ◆ Chickens, hare, and wild boar ◆ Gytheum, the Spartan port in the Lakonian Gulf, provided shellfish for dye to colour Spartan clothing.

Significant sites: Sparta

➔ 9th Century = Limnae, Pitana, Kynosoura, and Mesoa united to make one Polis (city state) ◆ The outlying kome (village) and Amyklai later became part of the Polis in 750 BC ➔ Acropolis = High city or important part of town ➔ Agora = Marketplace for trade and social life ➔ Thucydides = writing in the 5th century BC ◆ Suggests that Sparta was such an insignificant place that in future times there would be no ruins to remind people that it had ever existed ◆ “nor does it possess costly temples and buildings... and would seem an inferior place” ➔ Pausanias - Sparta and the area of Lakonia had many fine temples and monuments. ➔ Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia → Temple and site of a cult to Apollo ◆ Used in the Agoge - education system

Social structure and political organisation The issue of Lycurgus (the Great Rhetra) Lycurgus ➔ First King and only Lawgiver in Sparta ➔ Many are unsure if he was one or many people, or if he even existed at all ➔ Spartans treated him like a god ➔ Plutarch → “Concerning Lycurgus the lawgiver, in general nothing can be said which is not disputed”  The perpetuation of his name was one of the most successful frauds in history” ➔ Andrews → “ The Great Rhetra ➔ The Great Rhetra was a constitution given to Lycurgus from the Oracle at Delphi ➔ Xenophon → “conceiving a system utterly different from that of most others that he showed his country to e xcel in prosperity” Reign of Lycurgus according to Plutarch ➔ Gave Sparta its system of government and Agoge (education) ➔ Believed to have established the Gerousia (senate of 28 people + 2 kings) ➔ He forbade citizens to decorate their houses with luxuries - luxuries soon became non existent ➔ Encouraged men to serve the state - that was the sole purpose of a Spartan ➔ Created a cult like mentality ➔ Stopped gold and silver coins and established irony currency ➔ Toured other areas and collected ideas for reforming the Spartan constitution ➔ Re-divided the land in Sparta into 9 000 lots so everyone would be equal ➔ His laws were never written down ➔ Mentioned that the position of women was to exercise and bring forth male children ➔ Children were property of the state ➔ Spartans could not take part in trade, or anything that was not serving the state Modern Historians on Lycurgus ➔ Robin Lane Fox: ◆ Fox believes that Lycurgus introduced a political system that was based on the existing framework so that the people would not turn to tyranny. ◆ “Social and economic reforms were introduced within the existing political framework of their previous Great Rhetra.” ◆ “Its authors were then conflated in the legendary lawgiver Lycurgus, and their names forgotten. “ → Lycurgus could have been multiple people ➔ Paul Cartledge: ◆ Lycurgus created the Agoge (education) and reformed Sparta into a self government. ◆ Cartledge believes that he was most likely a myth, but he doesn’t really care because the Spartans held him in high regard to the point that they would die for the state ◆ “Spartans … gave their lives so willingly” ➔ W G Forrest: ◆ Believes Lycurgus was a real person ◆ “Lycurgus took what he found and partly by accident, partly by design, made a system of it”

Roles and privileges of the two kings Oracle = prophecy received from a god through the mediumship of a priest in ancient times Rhetra = public pronouncement or law ➔ Dyarchy = rule by two kings Two royal houses of the Kings: ◆ Agiads = Cleomenes I, Leonidas I ◆ Eurypontids = Demoratus (Herodotus = H, Aristotle = A, Xenophon = X, Plutarch = P) Roles and Privileges: Dyarchy: ◆ (A) Aristotle calls the kingship a “perpetual hereditary generalship” ◆ (X) 2 Kings, as one King goes to war, the other rules the state ◆ (H) Decided on adoption and marriages Origins of the Kingship: ◆ (X) Two royal houses ◆ (X) Joined together and were given equal power ◆ (X) As time progressed, some powers of the kings were restricted Military Functions: ◆ (H) First to war, last to leave, and right to declare war ◆ (H) Could take as many men as they wanted to war ◆ (H) Got all sacrifices and spoils of war ◆ (H) 100 men accompanied a king - a great honour for those men picked ◆ (P) The King offered sacrifices to the Muses before the conflict Religious Functions: ◆ (H) Kings were the high priests of Zeus ◆ (X) was personally given the skins and hides of all animals sacrificed ◆ Two pythoi (consultants of the Delphic Oracle), went with the king and would provide him with directions from the Oracle Special Honours: ◆ (H) Kings got the first meal and drink, and double portions of every meal ◆ (H) Had special seats at the games ◆ (H) When the King died, there was a 10 day mourning period Limits on their power: ◆ (A) Ephors, according to Aristotle, had sufficient power to compel Kings to ‘court them’ “the whole constitution has deteriorated, and from being an aristocracy has turned into a democracy.” → Ephors had most of the power ◆ (A) “So long as they were at war, therefore, their power was preferred, but when they had attained the empire they fell for the arts of peace and they knew nothing, and had never engaged in any employment than war” ◆ (X) Monthly oath taken by Kings and Ephors

Government: ephorate, gerousia, ekklesia ➔ Homoioi = similar, or peers ➔ Mitke = mixed constitution, combines a number of key political systems into one Oligarchy = rule by a small governing body (Ephors in this case) Constitution = law or rules by which a state is governed Democracy = rule by the people through elected officials ➔ Ephors (1 year) ◆ The Ephors were the only political body not included in the Great Rhetra - they were introduced after ◆ 5 men were elected by, and from the Ekklesia: ● Stayed in power for one year ● Over age 30 ◆ Role of the Ephors: ● Monitor the kings ● Went to war ● Controlled the Agoge ● Exchanged oaths with the kings ● Had the power to arrest and imprison the kings ● Initiated legislation ● Civil and criminal cases ● Significant power and control over Spartan society ◆ The Ephors had more power than the kings and could often take away their power ● The Kings can’t act without the Ephors. ● E.g. The king can declare war, but the Ephors choose the size of the army to send to war ◆ According to Xenophon: Displays their power ● “if ever they detect any irregular behaviour on anyone’s part, they at once punish it on the spot.” ● “Tyrants” - Suggests they had complete control over every aspect of society ● “Had the power to fine anyone they wish” ● Ephors could control size and resources used by the army ● “Ephors called an assembly” → Called Gerousia and Ekklesia meetings ● “They had full power to treat for peace”  - In charge of foreign policy ◆ According to Aristotle: Explores corruption ● Believes they did not abide by the laws of the state ● Hypocritical ● Accepted bribes → corruption, but also a demonstration of their power ● “Harmed the constitution” ● “The ephors’ lifestyle, too, is not in accordance with the aims of the state”

➔ Gerousia (life) = 28 men + 2 kings (30 people in total) ◆ Origin: ● Aristocratic classes ● Plutarch = “It came about as part of Lycurgus’ attempt to safeguard the state ” ● Most likely a result of a conflict between the kings and nobles about the time of the first Messenian War ◆ Membership: ● Kings were automatically members ● Every member was over 60 years old ● Office was held for life, regardless of age or mental health ◆ Selection: ● Plutarch = The Gerousia was elected by the Ekklesia according to which person received the loudest shout ● All Equals assembled near the house and the candidates for election to the Gerousia were brought forward one at a time ● When members were declared, there was a triumphant procession around the city followed by a banquet ◆ Functions: ● Main task was to prepare proposals which could be brought before the full assembly of equals (Ekklesia) for vote ● Acted as a court for trying criminal cases like murder and treason ● They prepared and deliberated on bills to be presented to the Assembly for voting. If the Gerousia was unhappy with the Assembly’s vote, it could decline to accept it. ● Didn’t have much power - could oppose laws, but most of the power lay in the Ephors ◆ Limitations: ● Aristotle = Questions whether the Gerousia should be allowed to make such important decisions when they are that old ● Didn’t have the interests of the state at heart ● It is unclear how often they met ● Aristotle = “There is evidence that the members of the Gerousia have been guilty of bribery and favouritism. Besides, people’s minds grow old, as well as their bodies. ”

➔ Ekklesia (life) = Demos, ◆ Democratic body = People’s assembly that voted ◆ Appellazein = “assemble the people” ◆ Membership: ● Limited to Spartans (Equals) ● Eligible from 30 years of age ● Lost citizenship = lost right to attend and vote ◆ Functions: ● Met monthly on the full moon at the time of the Feast of Apollo ● Plutarch = Lycurgus established meetings in an open field ● Did not meet in buildings = Plutarch = the serious purposes of an assembly were rendered foolish and futile by vain thoughts, as they gazed upon statues, and paintings, or scenic embellishments ● Voted on legislation and other proposals including: ○ Sign and ratify treaties ○ Questions of war and peace, nominate which king to lead the army ○ Appoint generals ○ Elect Ephors and Gerousia ○ Freeing of helots ◆ Methods of Voting: ● Shouting = the louder side determined the winner ● Moving to one side (Thucydides) ◆ Limitations: ● Ekklesia could not make motions (P  lutarch), the Ephors did ● The ability to vote was limited by the King and Ephors ● If the Ekklesia made an improper vote, the Kings and Gerousia had the power to adjourn it ○ The purpose of the Ekklesia was essentially to maintain the facade of democracy

Social structure: Spartiates, perioeci, ‘inferiors’, helots ➔ Spartans ◆ Males aged over 30 Homoioi = equals ◆ Had to finish the Agoge (education) and go to war to become Spartan ◆ Member of the Ekklesia = had political rights ◆ Sole purpose = military training ◆ Lycurgus prohibited Spartans from doing anything such as trade, make weapons, etc. other than military training. ◆ Conquered the Dorians ◆ Never numbered more than 10 000 ◆ Held all political power ◆ Equal under the law = for the sake of the military ● Were some distinctions between the rich and the poor = controversy over the existence of nobility ◆ Code of honour = courage, loyalty, endurance, obedience ◆ Full time soldiers ◆ Given land allotments (Kleros) and specific numbers of Helots ◆ Admitted to messes or Syssitia ● Forced social harmony and limited disorder ● Reinforced the idea of being “equals” ● Regulated food/rations to maintain great warriors ● Xenophon = “brought the common messes out into the open, considering that this would reduce disobedience of orders to a minimum” ➔ Inferiors ◆ A social group between citizens and non-citizens ◆ Ways to become an Inferior: ● A Spartan that had become illegitimate due to ○ Loss of citizenship ○ Not completed the Agoge ○ Tresantes / Trembler = fled in battle ● A freed Helot or adopted playmate ◆ The existence of inferiors reveals that the Spartan social classes were not completely rigid = Helots could move up and Spartans could move down ◆ Inferiors were a mix of previous social classes - Spartans and/or Helots ◆ Three types of Inferiors: ● Partheniai = illegitimate Spartans ● Neodamodeis = Freed Helots due to courageous services in war ● Mothakes = non-Spartans who participated in the Spartan educational system but did not go on to be citizens ◆ Xenophon = “in the street he is required to give way, as well as give up his seat even to younger men” → Inferiors were not well respected throughout Sparta

➔ Perioeci ◆ Fringe dwellers, “dwellers around” ◆ Not owned by the state like the Helots are, but not technically Spartan either. ◆ Had some political rights within themselves ◆ Possibly provided the middle ground / link between the Spartans and Helots to help prevent revolt ◆ Role = to engage in trade, weapon manufacturing etc. Basically everything the Homoioi could not do ◆ Had own religious cults and took part in Spartan religious festival of the Promacheia ◆ Went into battles with Spartans ◆ Could be wealthy in their own right ◆ Unable to decide on Spartan policies ◆ Autonomous in their own communities Helots ◆ Slaves, State - owned serfs ◆ Ratio of 1:24 Spartans to Helots = there were A LOT of helots ◆ Role in Society: ● Agriculture = worked the Kleros (land) of the Spartans ● Tyrtaeus = “  asses exhausted under great loads” ● Were required to produce certain amounts of crops to the Spartiate but were allowed to keep any remaining produce ● Fox = notes how Helots could not be bought and sold ● Female Helots were responsible for weaving, spinning, making clothes, and maintaining the home ● During war, Helots could fight as light armed troops ◆ Treatment of the Helots: ● Able to live as a family, similar marriage rights ● Could gain freedom for bravery or service to the state ● Provided they produced their quota, they could live a comfortable life ● If assigned to a remote Kleros, they rarely had contact with their masters ● No political or legal rights = unable to vote ● Used as part of Spartan training ● Annually war was declared on helots = beatings despite no wrongdoing ● Forced to live separately in case they caused a revolt ◆ Other Greek states (Athens) did not believe in the enslavement of other Greeks (Hence Aristotle is sympathetic towards the helots) ◆ Aristotle = helots attacked the spartans, always on the lookout for any mischance to befall their masters ◆ Helots aided Athens in the Peloponnesian war to gain revenge over Sparta

Role of the Spartan army ➔ Hoplite = Spartan Foot Warrior ◆ Fight to the death, No cowards = they would rather die ◆ Carry their own weapons to war ◆ Ultimate goal is to serve Sparta ➔ Phalanx: ◆ Human wall of shields - Spartans standing as close as possible to each other with shields interlocking and spears pointing at the enemy ◆ Each Spartan protected the man on their left ➔ The army consisted of Spartans, Perioeci and Helots ◆ Spartans aged 20 - 30 and full Spartans were part of the army until age 60 ➔ If a Spartan was killed in battle, his comrades carried his body on his hoplon back for burial ➔ Comradeship in the Spartan army was extremely strong ➔ Thucydides and Xenophon discuss the structure of the army in detail = numerous rows ➔ Corinthian helmet used = led to the development of hand and horn signals during battle ➔ Tyrtaeus = Covered with the belly of his broad shield/ In his right hand let him shake his mighty spear = depicts a highly propagandistic image of the Spartan myth Importance of the Army: ➔ Spartan culture was a warrior community ➔ Sparta’s reputation among other Greek polises was based on pre-eminence at war (Xenophon) ➔ Spartan dominance in the Peloponnesian League was because of its military prowess ➔ All training and education of the Spartans focused on their role as hoplites in the phalanx ➔ Sparta had no walls, and needed none when it had such a fearsome army (Pausanias) ➔ In war, the army was supplemented by perioikoi and lightly armed helots ➔ In peace, the army was used to protect the polis and safeguard against internal and external forces Role of the Spartan Army: ➔ Protect Sparta from Internal and External Threats: ◆ Internal = Preventing Helot Revolt to maintain social order ● Krypteia ● 200 Helots Disappeared (Thucydides) ◆ External = Persia and Athens ➔ Maintain the Spartan System by producing Spartan Citizens ◆ Maintain “equality” = Homoioi ◆ Warrior citizen ◆ 20 - 30 you are part of the army and the Agoge - overlap ◆ Same reasons for the purpose as the Agoge - protect against helots, propagate Spartan myth, provide a function and role for Spartan society ◆ Provides Spartan society with a PURPOSE ➔ Metaphorical image of Spartan myth / mirage = portrayed their image to the outside world ◆ Both a physical and metaphorical force controlling the people ◆ Fearsome warriors, strong, perfect, Spartans only tell us what they want us to know ◆ Sparta’s main contact with the rest of the world was through their army - the army was important in maintaining Sparta’s image / mirage

◆ “They will not under any circumstances accept terms which would mean slavery for Greece; secondly they will fight you even if the rest of Greece submits” (Herodotus)

Control of the helots: the military, syssitia, krypteia ➔ Many historians comment that the sole purpose of Spartan society was to prevent revolt from the helots ➔ They saw the helots as a real power and recognised their strength = but the strongest were also the ones they killed off first in order to prevent revolt ➔ Helots were treated as less than human ➔ Plutarch = “  killing the helots who stood out for their physique and strength” =  viewed them as strong, but also therefore felt threatened (potential for revolt) and killed them ➔ Cartledge = they assign to the helots every shameful task leading to disgrace ➔ Helots were physically and mentally tortured ➔ Cartledge = “Spartans genuinely fear helot revolt” ➔ Talbert = “we should expect helots to have been relatively ignorant, simple people” = acknowledges their limits ◆ However, Cartledge argues that the Spartans genuinely feared revolt, suggesting that the Helots had the education and potential to plan an actual revolt - contradicts Talbert Krypteia: ➔ An organisation like a secret police force. Purpose was to keep the helots in a state of fear. ➔ Young Spartans undertaking the Agoge were armed with daggers, and roamed the countryside at night, murdering any helot they could find. ➔ Aristotle makes further notable point that immediately upon taking up office the ephors would declare war on the helots, so that they could be killed without pollution. → it was wrong to murder without being in war

Educational system: Agoge ➔ The Agoge was the Spartan educational system (from ages 0 - 30) that all Spartans must complete in order to become a citizen 0-6 ➔ Babies were examined for their physical strength. If they failed the examination, they were left by a cliff overnight. Strong babies survived and weak babies died. ➔ Bathing the children in wine was believed to expose any deformities ➔ Nurses...