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Geographical setting : Describe how Sparta was founded :  During the 11th century, the exact date is unknown, it is proposed that the Dorians, originating from Macedon, swept through Greece, crossed the Corinthian gulf and overran the Peloponnese.  This massive invasion has been attributed as a possible contributing factor to the 'bronze age collapse'.  One of these groups settled in Laconia in the south and founded numerous villages on the west bank of the Eurotas river.  The reasons for settlement in such an environment was largely a consequence of the fresh water that flowed from the surrounding mountains, which also supplied a level of natural defense.  The Dorians lived in four scattered settlements or villages :  Liminai  Pitana  Kynosoura  Mesoa  Amykles  At some point during the 9th century BC, these villages united and formed the Spartan polis and by extension state. Describe how Sparta expanded :  The lack of cultivable land in the north of the Eurotas valley ultimately prompted the Spartans to seek land elsewhere.  They subsequently took control of Laconia and as far south as Helos.  In the 8th century, much like many other Greek states, Sparta attempted to colonize the Mediterranean.  Spartans travelled to Knidos in Asia Minor and Libya yet only one colonisation post succeeded in planting its roots - Tares (Tarentum) in 706 BC.  This supplied Sparta with a considerable amount of trade - yet even without this post - Sparta still had connections to Crete and North Africa through the Gytheum port.  Also during this time, Sparta set out colonist to the Western slopes of Mt Taygetus, Messenia, and annexed region, and forced the inhabitants to work as serfs.  This ultimately prompted the first Messenian war (735 - 716 BC) and the subsequently the second (640 BC 620 BC) which concluded with the entire population of Messenia becoming the helots of Sparta.  Increased profitable land of Sparta - Strabo - "greater than words can express". Describe the environment of Sparta :  Spartans inhabit the region commonly referred to as Laconia, described by Homer as the "low-lying city", located in the Southern corner of the Peloponnese.  This area, characteristic of the Peloponnese, is dominated by mountains and contains a valley (Eurotas).  The Peloponnese itself is surrounded by water only with the Corinthian gulf offering passage from the mainland.  The Eurotas valley was the sanctuary of the Spartan peoples.  The city Polis was located on the west side of the Eurotas river at the head of a fertile plain about 5 kilometres wide and 14 kilometres long.  To the west - Mt Taygetus dominated the Eurotas valley and was a favourite hunting ground for the Spartans.  In ancient times, its gorges and peaks were thickly forested and were home to many wild animals.  During winter, its peaks were suffocated in snow yet some heights maintained a level of snow all year ---> cool breeze found its way into the Spartan polis.  Streams and rivers flowed from the mountains supplying the people of Sparta with an abundance of fresh water.  To the Easts stood the limestone Parnon mountains  To the North - the Arcadian mountains.  The Eurotas river lasted 40 kilometres in length yet did not connect with the port of Gytheum.

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The river was an important route in ancient times for Sparta as it offered a pass into other parts of the Peloponnese.  Also supplied fresh water. The port of Gytheum was 47 kilometres from Sparta.  Was not large enough to support a town.  However, it did supply the Sparta with trading connections with Crete and North Africa.  An abundant supply of murex (shellfish) - supplied the Spartans with the reddish-purple dye - used for their cloaks.

Describe the Polis :  A polis, in ancient Greece, was a self-governing community of people.  Generally, a polis included a fortified acropolis, a walled town or city build around the acropolis and villages and farms located in the surrounding countryside.  The polis provided a place upon which the people could defend themselves in times of trouble - it was also became the economic, political and religious center of the state.  However, according to Thucydides, the Spartan Polis was unlike any he had encountered in Greece.  "neither built in a compact form nor adorned with magnificent temples and public edifices".  He tells us that unlike other Greek cities there did not appear to have been a town centre where all political, economic and religious activities were focused.  Thucydides suggests that the town was composed of four suburbs or villages with a fifth (Amclae) six kilometres to the south.  Yet Pausanias tells us in his 'description of Greece' that the area of Laconia had many fine temples and monuments in the 2nd century AD.  Suggesting that subsequent to the 5th century BC, Sparta had altered their city.

Social and political structure : Social structure : 

Spartiates :  Spartiates were the citizens of Lakonia, referred to in contemporary society as Sparta, which was located in the Southern Peloponnese, Greece.  These Homoioi, the term given to 'citizens', which implied common and shared traits, were required to be over the age of 30 + completed their education (agoge) and prove that they were descendants from the original Dorian conquerors in the 11th century BC ---> enjoyed citizenship in the polis of Sparta.  If one was to assume citizenship ---> placed in one of three tribes; the Hylleis, the Pamphyloi, the Dymanes.  Once placed in one of the tribe, it is suspected that they one would be further divided into one of three phratriai (brotherhoods).  The Homoioi class in Sparta was at the peak of social hierarchical structure - their existence was consumed by military practices.  However, such titles and honours were not immovable.  Unacceptable conduct, such as drunkenness, would led to an individual's atimia (loss of honour).  There was also pressure on those who were of this class - if they did not marry and produce children, or find a mess they would be publically sunned and shamed.

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Perioikoi :  The perioikoi were neither Homoioi nor Helots nor inferiors, they were, as their title suggests, "the men who live in the house around".  The origins of such a class is believed to be those who were in the Laconia region prior the Dorian invasion.  However, some historians suggests that they were part of this invasion yet derive from a separate tribe.  This class of peoples is also found in surrounding cities, such as Argos, Elis and in Thessaly.

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They are described as 'half citizens'. The land they lived on, as described by Plutarch, was "the outer territory", suggesting they were situated in the villages that surrounded the Spartan polis.  Michell also suggests they were the best sailors in the Spartan army.  They served in the Lakedoaimonian army --- > fought as hoplites - yet lacked the level of training the Spartans had acquired through their agoge.  5000 are reported to have fought against the Persians in 479 BC at the battle of Plataia Plutarch. This class was subject to taxation and could be put to death without a trial by the Ephors, who oversaw crimes that were indictable offences. By 5th century BC, the perioikoi were presumably the ones in Laconian society that crafter, traded and involved themselves with commerce.  Therefore - essential in the economy - Cartledge - economy depended on their contribution.  A result of Lykourgos implementing a law that prohibited the Homoioi in engaging in such activities. However, there is no way of knowing this for sure.

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Inferiors :  The Spartans adopted many terms to describe their 'inferiors', yet all find similarity in their suggestion that they were low in the social ladder.  These peoples were neither a Homoioi, perioikoi or helot ---> there were different types of inferiors.  There were five types of inferiors :  Hypomeinoes :  Spartans who had lost their citizenship.  Agamoi :  Male Spartan citizens who had failed to produced sons as the state required.  Tresantes :  If one surrendered in battle they would be stripped of their citizenship and branded as a tresas (trembler).  Would not be able to sit nor eat with any Homoioi ---> would sink in the social class structure to the 'inferiors'.  Mothaces :  The mothaces were sons of helots who may have been a playmate to future Homoioi, it is suggested that they participated in the agoge yet could not become a citizen.  Parthenaiai :  Inferiors who were born from an illegitimate union of a Spartiate and a helot women.  Neodamodeis :  Regarded as "new people" - helots granted freedom from the state - often through battle.  Notably those that fought during the Peloponnesian war.

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Helots : 

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The Helots of Ancient Sparta are generally perceived as 'Serfs', comparable to those in the Middle Ages, by contemporary historians.  It is believed that they are descendants of the original enslaved populations the Spartans acquired in their conquest of Lakonia and then later of Messenia as the name helot implies seizure. During this zeitgeist, it was common for an entire population, after being conquered to be sold to the slave market, these slaves were referred to as douloi.  Yet in Sparta, the helots were not owned by individuals but instead by the Spartan state.  Paul Cartledge - "an unfree people not a random collection of individually owned slaves". However, in Greece, as Wees argues, such forms of serfdom were characteristic of Greece during the 7th and 8th centuries. These slaves were forced to work incredibly hard.  Spartan Poet Tyrtaios - "like donkeys, weighed down by heavy burdens".

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Their perpetual farming of the land allowed Spartiates to focus predominately on their militaristic lifestyle as they supplied food and goods whilst being allowed to keep a certain amount to themselves.  The exact numbers of Helots are unknown, yet its known that this class dramatically outnumbered the Spartiates. Army service was required for Helots by the Spartan state.  Thucydides tells us that during the Peloponnesian wars - Helots were used as psiloi (light infantry) - subsequently freed - ultimately becoming Neodamodeis. Sparta utilized their 'krypteia' as a mechanism to instil fear within the helots in the ambition of reminding them of Spartan dominance.  Cartledge refers to this as the 'special ops' unit - their purpose "was to murder the… and spread terror amongst the rest". Yet Spartan foreign policy was also influenced heavily by the fear of the Helots rebelling.  Thucydides suggests that the primary factor regarding why the Spartan army could not be away for too long was because of the Helots.  "constantly take most of their decisions with a view to precautions against the helots". These feared revolts are seen in 464 BC when the helots took advantage of a large earthquake and fled to Mt Ithome until the Athenians aided them and in turn they helped Athens in the coming wars.

Political structure : The Spartan political system combined numerous elements of differing styles of government, consequentially ensuring a simple description is difficult to ascribe. This system consisted of two kings, which indicates monarchical rule. However, legislative powers and some judicial powers were vested in the council of elders, commonly referred to as the Gerousia. Powers held by this body indicate the Spartan government was more akin to an oligarchy. However, laws had to be passed by the Ekklesia, the people's assembly, which would suggest a democratic element. 

Ephors :  Ephors were the chief magistrates in the Spartan polis.  5 of them were elected annually by the Ekklesia and held extensive powers regarding the life's of citizens within Laconia  Plato - interpreted these 5 men as the democratic element within the constitution.  They essentially controlled the Spartan foreign policy and would meet with foreign envoys + oversaw criminal trials that involved indictable offences.  Inspected infants upon their birth - assessment - thrown into a chasm in Mt Taygetus  Summoned mettings of the gerousia - presided over- could introduce legislation.  Agoge controlled by the Ephors.  Every month they would take an oath to ensure the Kings were acting lawfully + accompany on battle - early forms of magna carta - "law is king".  Aristotle - "keeps the constitution together".  The majority of historians are united in their agreement that Plutarch's explanation regarding the development of the constitution is correct.  However, the period upon which the integration of the 'Ephors' occurred is debated.  David Ogden suggests that the Ephors were in fact introduced in a document termed the 'rider', which was written before the great Rhetra.  Challenging Plutarch's suggestion.  Michell - dismisses the possibility that they were priest.

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Gerousia :  The Gerousia was Sparta's council of elders - Pindar of Thebes - "there are councils of Elders"  The council itself was comprised of 28 men (Homoioi), who were over the age of 60, and the 2 kings.  The Ekklesia elected men to enter the Gerousia - through a method known as acclamation (shouting and cheering approval) - usually only those who belonged to the elite aristocrats - it was considered a great honour.  They held extensive judicial and legislative powers - indicative of a ruling oligarchy.

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Inordinate amount of bribery - Aristotle - " childish" Much like the Ephors, they oversaw serious criminal cases that involved death, exile or disgrace.  Held the power to put the kings on trial. The council would formulate and propose laws - these laws were then accepted or rejected by the Ekklesia.  In this sense - the gerousia was a probouleutic body - main function to prepare and debate bills - then voted by another body - akin to the boule in Athens.  However the "Rider to the rhetra" suggests that the Gerousia, if in disagreement with the Ekklesia, could adjourn or leave a vote unratified. Plutarch tells us - the Gerousia introduced as consequence of the state heading towards extreme democracy or tyranny.  Plutarch - the gerousia provided - "an equal balance that gave stability and a fixed calmness".

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Ekklesia :  The Ekklesia, commonly referred to as the people's assembly, was comprised of all male citizens over the age of 30.  The assembly met in an outdoor environment once a month - arguably the most democratic aspect of Sparta.  Their role within Laconian society is established in the Great Rhetra - Plutarch - "the people must have authority and power"  Thucydides tells us that during these meetings, the men were given a yes or no choice of voting, exhibited through shouting or physically dividing to one side or the other.  Yet Sealey comments - "how far the power of the assembly extends is not wholly clear"  However, they could not change the wording of the motion presented by the Gerousia nor the debate issues.  They elected men to fill the Gerousia + appointed generals and admirals.  Plutarch suggests there was a perpetual issue regarding the relationship between the kings, council of elders, and the people.  He tells us the people supposedly sought out more power as they were not content with the yes/no voting rights - wanted to propose motions.  Consequentially ---> additional clause was added - limited the people's power known as the 'rider'.  Spartan Poet Tyrtaios - "keeping them [the Ekklesia] straight".  However, we must be cautious when accepting this as historical fact, as Odgen suggests, this 'rider' clause may have occurred before the Great Rhetra.

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Kings :  

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The Laconian state was presided over by two kings, referred to as the Archagetai according to Herodotus. Such positions, according to Plutarch, were established in the Great Rhetra.  Ostensibly, one king had ascended from the Agiad family and the other from the Eurypontid family.  However, these kings may have also been a result of the synoecism when forming the polis of Sparta. Functions :  They were the chief priests (Zeus) of the state and kept oracles from Delphi.  One dedicated to Zeus Lakedaimon - other to Zeus Ouranios.  During war they lead the Spartan troops - yet only one could lead them - believed that the Dioskouri protected them  In the mess, these kings received special meats for sacrifice and had double rations.  They held limited judicial powers yet had influence in foreign affairs. Presided over by the Ephors and had to swear an oath once a month that they would uphold the law. They could be put on trial by both the Ephors and the Gerousia for misconduct - "law is king".  Evidence - King Pausanias was put on trial by the Ephors. It would seem the positions of the kings were more symbolic than powerful.

Role of the Great Rhetra - the Delphi oracle : Lykourgos : Para 1 - Who is Lykourgos - Ancient :  Lykourgos, in Laconian society, has been attributed with virtually crafting the entirety of the Spartan system.  Yet his existence, and by extension contribution, within Spartan society is clouded in ambiguity as ancient historians consistently contradict each other whilst concurrently acknowledging the impossibility of producing an undisputed resolution.  Plutarch, Aristotle and Herodotus find similarity in their suggestion that Lykourgos existed sometime in the 9th - 7th century BC whilst Xenophon suggests he existed in the first half of the 8th century.  Plutarch tells us that he left Sparta to gather knowledge regarding foreign political systems and returned determined "to sweep away the existing order and to make a complete change of constitution" yet proceeds to tell us that he may not have existed.  Herodotus implies that Lykourgos was a god, "yet I incline to believe, Lykourgos, that you are a god".  Xenophon praises Lykourgos to such an extent that bias is manifested transparently - this is further reinforced by the fact that he fought for Sparta during the Peloponnesian war despite himself being an Athenian. Para 2 - Who is Lykourgos - Modern accounts :  These contradictions have led modern historians to disregard his existence - Fitzhardinge - "there is no good evidence for Lykourgos as a real person".  Yet as Michel highlights - "we cannot definitely affirm his existence; but we equally cannot deny it".  Furthermore, Forrests suggest Lykourgos, if he did exist, merely ratified what had already existed as much of Great Rhetra lays was already establish in Dorian law.  In this sense, as Plutarch suggests, "absolutely nothing can be said that is not controversial about [Lykourgos]".  As a consequence, we can presume from the evidence established that there may have been a lawgiver who lied sometime in the late seventh century. This reformer may have recommended reforms to the social life of Sparta that had already existed. Para 3 :  

Political reforms - foundation for Sparta's political system. Despite the controversy surrounding the figure of Lykourgos, the political reforms that are ostensibly attributed to Lykourgos had a profound impact on Spartan society.  According to Plutarch, the 'Great Rhetra', the Delphi oracle, established the laws that would come to characterise Spartan life.  He suggests the laws introduced the council of elders, known as the gerousia, the founding leaders, archagetai, and the Ekklesia, the people as "the people must have authority and power"  Through this, Kleros, the agoge and mess' were introduced, all of which aimed to combat greed and inequality. Yet this ambition was antithetical to reality as Xenophon tells us of Spartans who were able to make larger contributions to the mess' than others as a consequence of the wealth they obtained.

Role of the Spartan army :  Devoted majority of time - military training + practise + conviction held - best army in Greece.  Arms and armour of...