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Synthesis Paper ***** Liberty University

2 SYNTHESIS Synthesis Paper Due to my participation in the course Introduction to Research, I have learned many things. This course was my first encounter with research methods and designs, and my first course utilizing strict APA formatting style as well. As a result of this course, I have not only become familiar with, but I have also mastered many topics at the introductory level. Key topics that I have learned and that I have felt important/interesting include: experimental and non-experimental research methods and designs, and threats to internal validity. From a Christian perspective, I have also analyzed multiple research topics that I have learned in this course, and have formulated an appropriate critique of the varying aspects of research. What I Have Learned Experimental Research Methods When performing an experimental research experiment, manipulation of a variable is involved. There are many steps involved when using this methodology and before even beginning the experiment, there is a lot to be done. I will try and simplify what I have learned as each step would be extensive if I were to go into every detail and concept. The first steps in the experiment involve the researcher formulating a research question, conducting research to know what is currently out there on the selected topic, and then generating their research hypothesis, which is a statement about the relationship between variables (Crawford, 2016). Next, the researcher must choose the independent variable(s) (what is being manipulated) and the dependent variable (what is being observed). The next step, which in my opinion may be the most important step, is choosing the sample of participants to be in the experiment. There are many sampling procedures to obtain participants, such as random assignment, cluster sampling, systematic probability sampling, stratified probability sampling, convenience sampling, and

3 SYNTHESIS snowballing (Crawford, 2016). Snowballing. One type of sampling procedures that I found quite interesting is snowballing. This procedure is where a sample is acquired by a referral process among similar individuals. The name comes from the comparison to the sample of participants growing in size just as a snowball grows when you add more snow to it (Crawford, 2016). I think this is a great technique if you have a research idea but are unaware of where to start looking for participants. For example, if the researcher is seeking out college students as participants, the researcher only needs to knows one or two college students. They will more than likely know others in the category of research and can then point the researcher in the direction towards many more through the referral process. This is just one of many examples of finding a sample population for a research experiment. Once the participants are chosen they will be split into the control group and the experimental group, and the experiment will be ready to be conducted. Observations will be made throughout the experiment and finally, results will be drawn and interpreted. Non-experimental Research Methods Nonexperimental research involves the study of how variables are related (Crawford, 2016). Unlike experimental research, there is no reliance on manipulation of variables. It strictly makes observations about how variables are related to one another, and describes the discoveries. I have learned many different types of nonexperimental methods, such as ethnography, naturalistic observation, case study, content analysis, archival research, and survey research. Each method can be used for a variety of reasons, and is equipped with advantages and disadvantages. Naturalistic observation. One type of nonexperimental research is naturalistic

4 SYNTHESIS observation. Crawford (2016) claims that this methodology occurs when a researcher observes people or animals in their natural setting. The researcher is afforded many choices with this type of research. The observations can be field based or laboratory based. The researcher can also make his or her presence known or hidden to the participants (Crawford, 2016). In these settings, the observed behavior is natural and spontaneous, which makes for realistic results. However, one disadvantage could be the possibility of participants changing their behavior because of the researcher’s presence. Personally, I like the idea of field studies with the researcher presence hidden the best because I believe it gives researchers the most accurate observations of behavior. Survey research. Another type of nonexperimental research is survey research. This research methodology is where a researcher designs a questionnaire to obtain information regarding behaviors, attitudes, or opinions (Crawford, 2016). The questionnaire can be designed in any way the researcher chooses. For example, with open-ended questions, close ended questions, or a combination of both. Common close ended questions consist of answering questions on a rating scale. The questionnaire may be administered in a variety of ways including via internet, mail, telephone, or face-to-face. One specific disadvantage of survey research that stood out to me in this chapter is social desirability. Social desirability occurs when participants may skew their answers in such a way as to be viewed positively by the researchers (Crawford, 2016). This is an important aspect of survey research to be aware of as it could have a heavy impact on research results. Threats to Internal Validity Crawford (2016) claims that internal validity is confidence in saying the observed change in the dependent variable is due to the independent variable and not due to any outside

5 SYNTHESIS influences. It is very important to be aware of threats to internal validity. This means that something else could have caused the change observed other than the manipulated independent variable. Common threats to internal validity include history, maturation, regression to the mean, placebo effect, attrition, diffusion of treatment, and instrumentation. Attrition. One threat to internal validity is known as attrition, which is where participants systematically drop out of an experiment, thus changing the experimental results (Crawford, 2106). If participants are dropping out of the study, there is a high likelihood that results will be skewed. Since the sample size is decreasing, the researcher must rely on a smaller number of people for results to reflect that of a population. This is bound to have a negative effect on the experiment because the researcher precisely called for the study to have a certain number of participants serving as representatives. Attrition can be a real threat to the internal validity of any study. Placebo effect. Another threat to internal validity is the placebo effect, which Crawford (2016) states occurs when the change in the dependent variable is due to the participant believing a change will occur. There is often a group of participants in experiments that are given a decoy substance rather than the real treatment. For example, this can be a strong internal threat to validity when testing out a new medication. I find this very incredible that if people simply believe something is going to happen, it can happen. The participants think that it was the treatment which caused the change but in fact they were given no treatment at all, and they were the cause of their own change. In conclusion, I have gained a plethora of knowledge of research methods just from this introductory level class. I have learned all of the aspects that go into creating a research experiment from choosing a research question to interpreting results. I have also learned the

6 SYNTHESIS difference between experimental and non-experimental methodologies as well as many examples of each type of varying methodology, such as naturalistic observation and survey research. In addition, I learned about many different possible threats to the validity of experiments, such as attrition and the placebo effect. Christian Perspective Critique I believe that God has given us the gift of research and experiments for a reason, and that he wants us to use our talents to conduct research and expand our knowledge. Proverbs 25:2 claims, “It is the glory of God to conceal a matter; to search out a matter is the glory of the kings” (New International Version). Several times in the Bible God calls for us to examine situations, and to uncover hidden answers. God wants us to grow our minds to the best of our abilities, and one way to do that is through conducting research. Research helps us to find out more about human and animal attitudes, thoughts, and behaviors. Through research, we are constantly finding new discoveries and inventions that can in some way or another, better the world. There are also other reasons why God and the Bible support conduction of research. Due to a lack of formal education and many other things, the world is full of preconceived notions, assumptions, and myths. People believe these misconceptions because they are misinformed, or not informed at all. God states that to be wise you must listen before you answer. In fact, Proverbs 18:13 states, “To answer before listening, that is folly and shame.” In many cases, research can help clear these misconceptions people have. Research reveals the truth of the matter, and helps to draw valid, realistic conclusions. Just because there is scriptural evidence that proves that God support’s research, does not mean that all research and research methods are sanctioned from a Christian perspective. Research has the potential to be glorifying to God and can be used as a light for Jesus Christ in

7 SYNTHESIS dark places. However, I also believe that research has the potential to be distorted and representative of the secular culture. In order to be God-honoring, the research must in the very least be ethical, moral, and valid according to the standards set forth by God in the Bible. Whether research and its methods are glorifying to God depend on a multitude of things. The first determination that is very important is the researcher’s topic of study, as well as motives for the study. Another important aspect that helps to determine if the research is God-honoring are the methods being used by the researcher to obtain he data. Lastly, how the results of the study are interpreted by the researcher can have an impact on how the study is viewed by a Christian. Research Methods and the Christian Perspective As previously stated, one step of conducting research is choosing a sample population to be the participants for the study. This is not always done correctly, for example, if a biased sample method was used, and from a biblical perspective, the research would be frowned upon. Crawford (2016) claims that a biased sample is a sample in which not everyone in the population has a known or equal chance of being selected. In some cases, the researcher may have a certain sample of people in mind who will perform the experiment the way he/she wants them to. This would be a biased sample because the researcher is hand picking participants who will strengthen his results. Romans 2:11 claims “For God does not show favoritism” and this is how researchers must also be with the participants of their study. Interpreting Results and the Christian Perspective Producing valid results is one last key to producing Godly research. When using experimental research methods, researchers often would like their hypotheses to be correct. Sometimes the results of the study will be unexpected and will fail to fit what they would have liked. It is important that no matter what the outcome is, researchers only publish valid study

8 SYNTHESIS results. It is unethical and immoral to skew results of a study to better fit the desired outcome of a study. For researchers to change or embellish qualitative or quantitative data is lying and ungodly. Leviticus 19:11states, “Do not lie. Do not deceive one another” and from a Christian perspective, this type of behavior is unacceptable. In conclusion, I have learned many things due to my participation in the course Introduction to Research. I have learned about various research methods and designs, and how to properly utilize the APA format. Focused research topics that were highlighted in this case study were experimental and non-experimental research methods and designs, and threats to internal validity. I have also been able to analyze research and its methods, and formulate conclusions through the lens of Christianity. I believe that God supports research, however, in order to have the support of the church it must be ethical and moral according to the regulations of God’s word.

9 SYNTHESIS References American Psychological Association (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author. Crawford, A. R. (2016). Introduction to research: Less frights, more insights (Custom 2nd ed.). Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt....