Test Review for Second Body Systems Test PDF

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Biology 1, 2020...

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Test Review over Control Systems, Motor Systems, Reproduction and Embryonic Development  Know the basic functions of the nervous and endocrine systems. o Work together to respond to changes that may threaten homeostasis o Endocrine: Consists of glands and tissues that secrete hormones into the bloodstream for distribution to target organs or tissues  Describe how the nervous system sends messages. o Nervous system quickly sends a message along a nerve fiber that releases a chemical message directly to a target organ  Describe how the endocrine systems sends messages. o Endocrine system uses blood to send a hormone to a target organ—sloweracting but longer-lasting  Describe how the nervous system is organized. o Central nervous system (CNS)— includes the brain and spinal cord o Peripheral nervous system (PNS)—includes the nerves outside CNS

 Identify and describe the following parts of the neuron: axon, cell body, dendrites, myelin sheath, nodes of Ranvier o Be able to label these on a diagram/illustration. o Cell body—contains nucleus and other organelles

Test Review over Control Systems, Motor Systems, Reproduction and Embryonic Development o /Dendrites—fan out to receive signals from sensory receptors or other neurons o Axon—longer than dendrites, conducts impulses away from cell body 

Myelin sheath—formed from membranes of tightly spiraled cells, helps impulses travel faster on long axons, makes nerves look white

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Nodes of Ranvier—gaps between myelin sheath

 Identify and describe the three types of neurons. o Sensory neurons 

Take impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS

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Sensory receptor may be a simple naked nerve ending or built into a complex organ like the eye

o Interneurons 

Occur entirely within the CNS

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Take nerve impulses between various parts of CNS as part of integration

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Form complex pathways in the brain where processes that account for thinking, language, and memory occur

o Motor neurons 

Take nerve impulses from CNS to muscles or glands

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Innervate structures—cause them to contract or secrete

 What is a nerve impulse dependent on? o Concentration gradients  What two elements are needed to generate a nerve impulse? o Sodium and potassium  Nerve impulses travel must faster in myelinated axons. Why?

Test Review over Control Systems, Motor Systems, Reproduction and Embryonic Development o Because the impulse jumps from node to node  Describe the differences between excitatory neurotransmitters and inhibitory neurotransmitters. o Excitatory neurotransmitter drives neuron closer to creating an action potential o Inhibitory neurotransmitter drives it farther away from creating an action potential 

Neurons integrate these signals.

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Integration is summing up excitatory and inhibitory signals.

 How can drugs effects the nervous system? o By interfering with or promoting the action of neurotransmitters. o Ex: 

Enhance or block the release of a neurotransmitter

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Mimic the action of a neurotransmitter

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Block the receptor for a neurotransmitter

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Interfere with the removal of a neurotransmitter from a synaptic cleft

 Know how both stimulants and depressants affect the activity of the CNS. o Stimulants increase activity of CNS o Depressants decrease activity of CNS  What is the CNS? What is it composed of? o The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, which are connected by long, connections of interneurons.  Cerebrum o Communicates with, and coordinates the activities of, the other parts of the brain  Diencephalon o Located beneath the cerebrum; contains the hypothalamus and thalamus  Cerebellum o Has two portions joined by a narrow median strip

Test Review over Control Systems, Motor Systems, Reproduction and Embryonic Development o Each portion composed primarily of white matter 

In longitudinal section has treelike pattern

o Thin layer of gray matter on top o Receives sensory input from eyes, ears, joints, and skeletal muscles o Receives motor output from cerebral cortex about where the parts should be o Integrates information to maintain posture and balance o Ensures coordinated, smooth, voluntary movements  Brain stem o Contains midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata o Connects rest of the brain to spinal cord o Contains tracts that ascend or descend between spinal cord and higher brain centers o Midbrain contains important visual and auditory reflex centers o Medulla oblongata contains reflex centers for regulating heartbeat, breathing, and vasoconstriction 

Also contains reflex centers for vomiting, coughing, sneezing, hiccupping, and swallowing

o Pons links medulla with midbrain 

Vital in control of breathing

 Most the cerebrum is white matter. What does this mean? o Most of the cerebrum is white matter (long axons of interneurons taking impulses to and from cerebrum).  Be able to describe the following functional regions of the cerebral cortex: primary sensory area, primary motor area, prefrontal area. o Primary sensory area—receives information from skin, skeletal muscles, and joints o Primary motor area—sends voluntary commands to skeletal muscles o Lobes have a number of specialized centers for sight, hearing, and smell o Prefrontal area—association area where information from other areas used to reason and plan our actions

Test Review over Control Systems, Motor Systems, Reproduction and Embryonic Development  Describe the functions of the following lobes of the brain: frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal. o Frontal lobe-reasoning, planning, speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving o Parietal lobe-integration of sensory input from skin and skeletal muscles, understating speech o Occipital lobe-seeing, perception of visual stimuli o Temporal lobe-hearing, perception of auditory stimuli  The diencephalon contains which two structures? o Hypothalamus and Thalamus (also pineal gland but it’s not a main one)  Describe the function of the hypothalamus. o Integrating center that helps maintain homeostasis by regulating sleep, hunger, thirst, body temperature, and water balance o Also controls pituitary gland—link to endocrine system  What three structures are located in the brain stem? o Midbrain: contains important visual and auditory reflex centers o Pons: links medulla with midbrain, vital in control of breathing o Medulla oblongata: contains reflex centers for regulating heartbeat, breathing, and vasoconstriction, also contains reflex centers for vomiting, coughing, sneezing, hiccupping, and swallowing  What two structures are essential for learning and memory? o Hippocampus, amygdala  What is the function of the PNS? o Peripheral nervous system connects the sensory neurons with the CNS.  Identify the two subdivisions of the PNS and what each subdivision consists of o PNS can be subdivided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems 

The somatic nervous system consists of the cranial and spinal nerve fibers that connect the CNS to the skin and skeletal muscles

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The autonomic nervous system includes fibers that connect the CNS to viscera; it controls unconscious activities

Test Review over Control Systems, Motor Systems, Reproduction and Embryonic Development  Identify the two subdivisions of the autonomic system and describe what each division does. o /The autonomic system is divided into: 

Parasympathetic division: promotes all the internal responses we associate with a relaxed state

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Sympathetic division: associated with the fight or flight - it accelerates the heartrate and dilates the airways

 What does the endocrine system consist of? o Glands and tissues that secrete hormones into the bloodstream for distribution to target organs or tissues  Identify the two classifications of hormones and how they differ from one another. o Steroid hormones: are lipids; they can pass through the plasma membrane o Peptide hormones: comprise peptides, proteins, glycoproteins, and modified amino acids; they cannot pass through the plasma membrane, so they bind to a receptor protein in the plasma membrane  Identify the two parts of the pituitary gland. o The anterior pituitary and the posterior pituitary 

These release hormones that regulate the other endocrine glands, usually by negative feedback mechanisms.

 What does the thyroid gland regulate? o Metabolism  What are stimuli? o Environmental signals that tell us about the external environment of the internal environment  What do chemoreceptors do? o Give us the ability to detect chemicals in the environment, which is believed to be our most-primitive sense  What are photoreceptors? o Sensory receptors that are sensitive to light  What are cutaneous receptors?

Test Review over Control Systems, Motor Systems, Reproduction and Embryonic Development o Help us respond to changes in our environment, be aware of dangers, and communicate with others 

The sensory receptors in our skin are for touch, pressure, pain and temperature.

 What are proprioceptors? o Help the body maintain equilibrium and posture, despite the force of gravity always acting on the skeleton and muscles  Identify the functions of the muscles and the bones that overlap. o Both skeletal muscles and bones support the body and make movement of body parts possible. o Both skeletal muscles and bones protect internal organs. o Both muscles and bones aid the functioning of other systems.  What do your bones store? o Fat and calcium  Identify and be able to describe the three types of skeletons. o Both jointed—helps in movement on land o Endoskeleton of humans composed of bone 

Living material capable of growth

o Exoskeleton of arthropods made of chitin 

Does not grow with animal

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Must be molted for animal to grow in size

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Process makes them vulnerable to predators

o Hydrostatic skeleton 

Fluid-filled internal cavity

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Offers support and resistance to the contraction of muscle so the animal can move

 Identify the two divisions of the human skeleton. Know which bones are located in each. o Axial skeleton 

Skull—cranium and facial bones

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Vertebral column

Test Review over Control Systems, Motor Systems, Reproduction and Embryonic Development 

Rib cage—ribs and sternum

o Appendicular skeleton 

Pectoral (shoulder) girdle—clavicle, scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, hand

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Pelvic (hip) girdle—coxal bones (pelvis), femur, tibia, fibula, foot

 Describe how osteoblasts differ from osteoclasts. o Osteoblasts—deposit bone, store calcium o Osteoclasts—digest bone, release calcium  Identify the three types of muscle. o Smooth muscles contain sheets of long, spindle-shaped cells, each with a single nucleus. o Cardiac cells are striated (having a striped appearance), each with a single nucleus. 

Cardiac muscle tissue contains branched chains of cells that interconnect, forming a lattice network.

o Skeletal muscle cells (muscle fibers) are also striated. 

Muscle fibers arise during development when several cells fuse, resulting in one long, multinucleated cell

 It is the release of calcium that causes muscle fibers to contract.  When skeletal muscle fibers contract, they shorten.  Identify and describe the following parts of a muscle: myofibril, sarcomere, myosin, actin o Myofibrils: Contractile portions of a muscle fiber 

Striated because of the placement of these protein filaments within contractile units (sarcomeres)

o Sarcomere 

Extends between two dark lines called the Z lines

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Contains thick filaments (myosin) and thin filaments (actin)

o Myosin  o Actin

Thick filaments

Test Review over Control Systems, Motor Systems, Reproduction and Embryonic Development 

Thin filaments

 Describe the sliding filament theory. o As a muscle fiber contracts, the sarcomeres within the myofibrils shorten because actin (thin) filaments slide past the myosin (thick) filaments and approach one another. o During the sliding process, the sarcomere shortens, even though the filaments themselves remain the same length.  Muscles are arranged in antagonistic pairs. What does this mean? o Each member of pair pulls on a bone in opposite direction o For example, when the biceps contracts, the forearm flexes (raises), and when the triceps contracts, the forearm extends (lowers).  Identify and describe the three types of joints located in the body. o Immovable—joints of cranium o Slightly moveable—joints between vertebrae o Freely moveable—synovial joint 

In synovial joints, ligaments bind the two bones together.

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Provides strength and support

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Forms a capsule containing lubricating synovial fluid

 Compare and contrast asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction. o Asexual 

Only one parent

Test Review over Control Systems, Motor Systems, Reproduction and Embryonic Development 

Many flatworms can constrict into two halves and each half can regenerate into new individuals.

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Fragmentation followed by regeneration also seen in sponges, corals, and echinoderms

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Hydras reproduce by budding 

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New individual (bud) is outgrowth of parent

Parthenogenesis 

Modification of sexual reproduction

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Unfertilized egg develops into a complete individual

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Drone honeybees (haploid males) are the result of unfertilized eggs.

o Sexual 

Two parents

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Produce gametes in gonads 

Testes produce sperm

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Ovaries produce eggs

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Zygote formed at union of egg and sperm

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Earthworms are hermaphrodites (both male and female sex organs) but they still cross-fertilize.

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May be external or internal 

External fertilization o Egg and sperm unite outside the parent’s body.

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Internal fertilization o Sperm unites with egg inside female body. o Copulation—sexual union to facilitate reception of sperm by female

 What is parthenogenesis? o Modification of sexual reproduction o Unfertilized egg develops into a complete individual o Drone honeybees (haploid males) are the result of unfertilized eggs.  How does internal fertilization differ from external fertilization?

Test Review over Control Systems, Motor Systems, Reproduction and Embryonic Development o External fertilization 

Egg and sperm unite outside the parent’s body.

o Internal fertilization 

Sperm unites with egg inside female body.

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Copulation—sexual union to facilitate reception of sperm by female

 What do the terms ovoviviparous and viviparous mean? o Ovoviviparous 

Eggs are retained in body until they hatch

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Releases fully developed offspring

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Oysters, sea horses, garter snakes

o Viviparous 

Produce living young

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Most mammals

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Some mammals still lay eggs

 Most mammals give birth to live young, except that duckbill platypus and spiny anteater that still lay eggs.  What does the human reproductive system consist of? o Gonads that produce gametes and sex hormones o Accessory organs that conduct gametes, and in females house the embryo/fetus  Know the basic parts of the male and female reproductive systems. o Male 

Penis, semen, testes

o Female 

Ovaries/gonads, ducts, vulva

 What is semen/seminal fluid? o Contains sperm and secretions from three glands  Inside the testes are lobules. Each lobule contains seminiferous tubules. Inside seminiferous tubules cells are undergoing spermatogenesis. What is spermatogenesis?

Test Review over Control Systems, Motor Systems, Reproduction and Embryonic Development o Spermatogenesis—meiosis reduces chromosome number from diploid (2n) to haploid (n) 

Sertoli cells support, nourish, and regulate the production of sperm.

 Identify, describe and be able to label the three distinct parts of a sperm cell. o Head with nucleus capped by acrosome o Middle piece containing mitochondria o Tail—flagellum

 Identify and describe the function of the two gonadotropic hormones the males and females have. o Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) promotes spermatogenesis in the seminiferous tubules. o Luteinizing hormone (LH) controls the production of testosterone by the interstitial cells between the seminiferous tubules.  Describe what testosterone is responsible for. o Essential for the normal development and functioning of the sexual organs o Also necessary for the maturation of sperm o Brings about and maintains the male secondary sex characteristics that develop at the time of puberty  The female gonads are the ovaries.  Differentiate between the ovarian cycle and the menstrual cycle.

Test Review over Control Systems, Motor Systems, Reproduction and Embryonic Development o Ovarian cycle 

Controlled by gonadotropic hormones FSH and LH from anterior pituitary gland

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Follicular phase—FSH promotes development of follicles, follicle secretes estrogen, blood estrogen levels rise, estrogen inhibits FSH, ovulation ends the follicular phase

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Luteal phase—LH promotes development of corpus luteum; corpus luteum secretes progesterone; as progesterone levels rise, LH levels drop; corpus luteum degenerates if fertilization does not occur

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Menstruation occurs if luteal phase ends.

o Menstrual cycle 

Estrogen and progesterone also influence endometrium of uterus

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Days 1 to 5—female sex hormones at low level, endometrium disintegrates, menses (blood, mucus, and degenerating endometrium) shed in menstruation

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Days 6 to13—increased estrogen causes endometrium to thicken and become vascular and glandular (proliferative phase)

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Ovulation usually occurs on day 14 of a 28-day cycle

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Days 15 to 28—increased progesterone causes endometrium to double in thickness and uterine glands to mature (secretory phase), prepared to receive developing embryo; if no embryo embeds, corpus luteum degenerates, low levels of hormones begins process over

 Identify the 7 ways to mentioned in the notes to control reproduction. o Abstinence, hormone based, barrier methods, intrauterine device, conceptive vaccines under development, morning-after pill, male hormonal birth control also under investigation  What are STDs? Which type of STD can be cured? Which type of STD can only be treated? o Sexually transmitted diseases o Viral STDs can be treated but not cured. o Only bacterial STDs can be cured.

Test Review over Control Systems, Motor Systems, Reproduction and Embryonic Development 

Chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis

 When the egg and sperm nuclei fuse, you have a zygote.  The early em...