The Fate of Muslim Nationalism in Independent Indonesia PDF

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Abstract The Fate of Muslim Nationalism in Independent Indonesia Kevin William Fogg 2012 This dissertation traces the fate of groups in Indonesia who sought to make their country an Islamic state by transforming politics and society. Although these groups played a critical role in winning Indonesia’...

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Abstract The Fate of Muslim Nationalism in Independent Indonesia Kevin William Fogg 2012 This dissertation traces the fate of groups in Indonesia who sought to make their country an Islamic state by transforming politics and society. Although these groups played a critical role in winning Indonesia’s independence during the Indonesian Revolution (1945-1949), divisions between political leaders, theological leaders, and the grassroots split the movement, and by 1960 these divisions caused the failure of Islam as a political movement for an Islamic state. During revolution, Dutch-educated political leaders took the leadership of the Islamic movement through appointments in the Socialist-led cabinets. These political leaders brought their Western norms to the struggle to establish an Islamic state. Theological leaders, prominent for their roles in Islamic education and mass organizations, also sought to establish an Islamic state, but they were less involved in Indonesia’s modern governance. Across Indonesia, pious Muslims disconnected from the national leadership of the Islamic movement also contributed to the revolution. At this grassroots level, the Indonesian Revolution was experienced as an Islamic fight for independence. The diversity of Muslim experiences in the revolution, including many heterodox practices, demonstrated the distance between the syncretic Islamic grassroots and the new leadership of the Islamic movement nationally. After Indonesia’s independence was recognized in late 1949, Islamic political parties and mass organizations sought to shape the state and nation to make them more Islamic. They were hindered in this by tensions between the political and theological leaders in the Islamic bloc, tensions that climaxed in the 1952 departure of Nahdlatul Ulama from the major Islamic party

Masjumi. The Islamic movement experienced many successes after independence, such as the expansion of Islamic organizations and education, but national trends such as the standardization of language limited the influence of Islamic ideas and activists. Things came to a head in the national elections of 1955, when the political leaders, theological leaders, and Islamic grassroots not only battled political parties opposed to Islam but also battled each other. Facing the elections, political interests proved to be paramount over existing social and cultural interests in the Indonesian Islamic movement. Although they expected an unambiguous victory, Islamic parties won only 45% of the seats in the resulting parliament and Constituent Assembly, severely restricting their ability to implement their vision of an Islamic state. After this defeat, the strain between the Islamic political elite and the Islamic grassroots and theological leaders became too great. Islamic political leaders were pushed into increasing irrelevance, failing to pass legislation, failing in the constitutional assembly, and committing half-heartedly to the PRRI rebellion of 1958-61. As a result, the debilitated Masjumi party was dissolved. Islamic mass organizations freed themselves from political parties and embraced the Sukarno regime. The Islamic movement as a bloc struggling for Indonesia to become an Islamic state fell apart.

The Fate of Muslim Nationalism in Independent Indonesia

A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Yale University in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

by Kevin William Fogg

Dissertation Director: Benedict F. Kiernan

December 2012

© 2013 by Kevin William Fogg All Rights Reserved

Table of Contents Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ viii A Word on Indonesian Spelling ........................................................................................ xii A Word on Indonesian Names ......................................................................................... xiii Introduction ........................................................................................................................1 Muslims in the Historiography of Independent Indonesia ...............................................2 Muslims in the Historiography of the Indonesian Revolution (1945-49) ....................2 Muslims in the Historiography of the 1950s ................................................................8 Muslims in Indonesia before Independence ...................................................................15 Divisions within Indonesian Islam: Pious and Nominal Muslims .............................23 Divisions within Indonesian Islam: Traditionalist and Reformist Muslims ...............28 Three Trends within Indonesian Islam in the Early 20th Century ..................................32 Toward Organizations ................................................................................................32 Toward Orthodoxy .....................................................................................................36 Toward Politics ...........................................................................................................38 Japanese Occupation ......................................................................................................48 Outline of the Dissertation .............................................................................................57 Methodology ..................................................................................................................60 Chapter 1: Politics during the Revolution .....................................................................65 Proclaiming Independence and the Start of the Jakarta charter Controversy ................67 Islamic Politics in the New State....................................................................................75 Founding of Masjumi as a Political Party ......................................................................83 Masjumi Leadership ...................................................................................................89 iii

Masjumi’s Platform ....................................................................................................98 Masjumi’s Auxiliaries ..............................................................................................104 Masjumi’s Expansion ...............................................................................................108 Formation of the Ministry of Religion .........................................................................110 Persatuan Perjuangan and Linggarjati as Testing Grounds ........................................114 Persatuan Perjuangan ..............................................................................................114 Linggarjati Agreement and the Expansion of the KNIP ..........................................117 Other Islamic Parties Emerge .......................................................................................125 Founding of Perti as a Rival Party ............................................................................125 Sermi as a Counterexample: Regional Political Islam .............................................131 Exit of PSII and the First Fracture of Masjumi ........................................................133 Islamic Law Becoming National Law ..........................................................................144 Marriage ...................................................................................................................145 Alms .........................................................................................................................149 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................152 Chapter 2: An Islamic Revolution at the Grassroots Level .......................................154 Archetypes of Islamic Rebellion in the Indonesian Revolution ...................................156 The Ideology of the Struggle ........................................................................................159 The Reason for the Fight ..........................................................................................159 Fatwas for Religious Fighting ..................................................................................161 The Role of Ulama in the Revolution ..........................................................................170 Fighting for Religion on the Ground ............................................................................178 Islamic Mass Organizations in the Revolution .........................................................180

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Sabilillah and Hizbullah ...........................................................................................182 Case Studies .................................................................................................................189 Amulets.....................................................................................................................189 Revolution in West Sumatra.....................................................................................194 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................200 Chapter 3: Changes after Independence .....................................................................203 NU Leaves Masjumi.....................................................................................................204 Implications of the NU Exit .....................................................................................216 NU as an Independent Party .....................................................................................220 Birth of New Islamic Organizations.............................................................................222 Boom in Islamic Education ..........................................................................................228 History of Government Patronage of Islamic Education .........................................228 Increase in Islamic Schools after Independence .......................................................230 Teaching Islam in Non-Islamic Schools...................................................................236 A Shift in Language .....................................................................................................241 Disappearance of Jawi Script ...................................................................................242 Vocabulary Selection and the Confinement of Arabic .............................................260 Spelling Changes ......................................................................................................271 Punctuation ...............................................................................................................281 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................282 Chapter 4: Muslims Face Elections ..............................................................................285 Election Law ................................................................................................................287 Anti-Vice Campaigns as an Election Tool ...................................................................294

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Perfect Coincidence of Parties and Organizations .......................................................304 Amuntai and the All-Indonesia Ulama Conference .....................................................312 In-Fighting Between Islamic Parties ............................................................................322 Campaigning against Communists ...............................................................................329 Use of the Term Kafir ..................................................................................................336 Results and Aftermath of the Elections ........................................................................340 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................352 Chapter 5: Decline and Collapse of the Islamic Movement .......................................354 Marriage .......................................................................................................................355 Constituent Assembly Debates.....................................................................................364 Muslim Rejection of Compromise ...........................................................................367 Nature of the Debate on the Foundation of the State ...............................................371 Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia (PRRI) ...............................376 End of the Constituent Assembly .................................................................................387 Islamic Organizations Exit Masjumi ............................................................................394 Disbanding of Masjumi ................................................................................................401 Giving Sukarno Titles ..................................................................................................406 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................414 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................420



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Table of Illustrations Figure 1: Map of Indonesian provinces with the percentage of their residents that were Muslim as of 2010 .................................................................................................17 Figure 2: Image of Masjid Syuhada ’45, Luwu, South Sulawesi ....................................168 Figure 3: Amulet from the collection of Marzuki Arifin .................................................193 Figure 4: Lima Puluh Sen coins from 1955 and 1957 .....................................................251 Figure 5: Dua Puluh Lima Rupiah bill from the PRRI in 1958 .......................................252 Figure 6: Letter from Ahmad Bone, 1953 .......................................................................256 Figure 7: Page from a 1946 publication showing the use of Arabic cognates .................267 Figure 8: Election symbols for Islamic parties ................................................................292 Figure 9: Journalist’s Picture of Conflict between NU and Masjumi ..............................327 Figure 10: Map of Proportion of the Vote Won by Islamic Parties, by Regency ............345 Figure 11: Map of Proportion of the Vote Won by Masjumi, by Regency .....................346 Figure 12: Map of Proportion of the Vote Won by NU, by Regency..............................347 Figure 13: Map of Proportion of the Vote Won by Perti, by Regency ............................348 Figure 14: Map of Proportion of the Vote Won by PSII, by Regency ............................349 Figure 15: Map of Regencies Where Islamic Parties Combined Won a Majority ..........350

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Acknowledgements Like any dissertation, this one grew not just out of my own work but also out of the good will of others. Unfortunately, I do not think I will be able to give just appreciation here to the hundreds of others on several continents who contributed to the research and writing of this work. My apologies in advance to the many, many people who helped me but do not find their names below; even if you are not listed, you are not forgotten. First, many thanks to my committee in the Department of History at Yale: Profs. Peter Perdue, Abbas Amanat, Tony Day, and especially Ben Kiernan. Prof. Kiernan was both diligent and patient in reading many drafts and fixing many awkward sentences. They have all given me many great ideas and tips, and I apologize that I was not smart enough and quick enough to integrate all of them into this product. Many other faculty and staff members at Yale also deserve thanks for contributing to this project. In no particular order, my sincere appreciation to Profs. Valerie Hansen, Alan Mikhail, Jon Butler, Michael Gasper, Francesca Trivellato, and Hal Conklin; Rich Richie and the Southeast Asia Curatorial Staff at Yale University Libraries; Greg Eow; Prof. Joe Errington, Kristine Mooseker, and the Council on Southeast Asia Studies; Indriyo Sukmono and my colleagues at the Yale Indonesia Forum; and Stacey Maples and Abraham Parrish of the Yale University Library Map Collection for help in creating the maps in the introduction and chapter 4. Special thanks to Marcy Kaufman, graduate registrar in History.

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Of course, many colleagues at Yale also helped me along the way, but these pages cannot contain sufficient words for them. Suffice it for me to list a few of them, in alphabetical order: Assef Ashraf, Amanda Behm, Teresa Bejan, Julio Capo, Jr., Hayden Cherry, Zane Curtis-Olsen, Frank Dhont, Deborah Doroshow, Elizabeth Duggan, Eugene Ford, Joe Fronczak, Emily Gasser, Julia Guarneri, Betty Luther Hillman, Vanessa Hongsathavij, Ranin Kazemi, Kevin Ko, Nathan Kurz, Annette Lienau, Megan Lindsey Cherry, ShawnaKim Lowey-Ball, Victor McFarland, Ana Minian, Katherine Mooney, Robin Morris, Jamie O’Leary, Todd Olszewski, Richard Payne, Tom Pepinsky, André Rivier, Leslie Theibert, Brian Turner, Farzin Vejdani, Miti von Weissenberg, Jennifer Wellington, Faizah Zakaria, and Waleed Ziad. The Citations did not necessarily help me to finish my dissertation, but they sure made the procrastination much more pleasant. My apologies to the many others whom I have forgotten to name here. Elsewhere in the US, I have incurred debts to Prof. Jim Collins at NIU, Prof. Audrey Kahin of Cornell, Jeffrey W. Petersen of the Olin Library at Cornell, Anto Mohsin, and Linda and Lenny, who graciously hosted me in Ithaca. I had the pleasure of meeting Profs. Brad Simpson of Princeton and Jennifer W. Nourse of University of Richmond while in the field, and I have enjoyed their good will on many fronts. Above all, my advanced education, from before I entered college to my destination after graduate school and across North Africa in between, owes an unspeakable debt to Profs. Bruce B. Lawrence and miriam cooke of Duke University. In Indonesia, I owe thanks to a legion of people. If I listed them all, the dissertation would double in size. Instead, I will mention a few key names who were critically important in teaching me about the country and connecting me with resources

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related to this project. Of course, I am very grateful to all of the Indonesians I interviewed to collect information about the Islamic movement in the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s; find their names in the bibliography. At the New York Consulate: Zahermann Muabezi. In Jakarta: Usep Abdul Matin, Tati Hartimah, Azyumardi Azra, Komaruddin Hidayat, Yeni Ratna, Cut Erika, Max and Tina Kalivas, Jeremy Menchik, Satrio Wicaksono, Josh Gedacht, Cornelia Paliama, Rizma Fadillah, Adnan Buyung Nasution, Sabar Sitanggang, Trac Pham, Sunny Tanuwidjaja, Syatiri Ahmad, and the staff of the National Archives, to whom I gave too much trouble and too little thanks. In Sukabumi: Haji Endang. In Jogjakarta: Sita Hidayah and Inayah Rochmaniyah. In Surabaya: Dewantoro Ratri. On Lombok: Chairussyuhur Arman, Suhubdy, M. Natsir Abdillah, Lalu Muhammad Kasip, M. S. Ending, Fahrurozzi, and H. Asnawi. In South Sulawesi: Alim Bachri Siri and family in Padangsappa, Muslim Muchtar in Masamba, Usman and Munira at Wisma Rektor UnHas, Azhari, Abd. Rahman Hamid, the staff of Arsip Propinsi SulSel, Mustari Bosra, and Muhsin Mahfudz. In Central Sulawesi: Lukman Thahir. In South Kalimantan: Irfan Noor, Syaharuddin, Ahmad Syadzali, and Farhat Tifani. In Aceh: Nur Ikhwan, Sehat Ihsan Sulaiman, Azka Raf, Muhammad Thalal, Cut Sari and family in Sigli, Usman Rizki, and the staff of Yayasan Ali Hasjmy library. In Medan: Ali Murtado, Warjio and the staff of FISIP a...