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Describe las propiedades, utilidades, funciones, efectos sobre el ambiente y la salud humana en general y sus reacciones con otros elementos...

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17/6/2021

Thulium - Wikipedia

Thulium Thulium is a chemical element with the symbol Tm and atomic number 69. It is the thirteenth and third-last element in the lanthanide series. Like the other lanthanides, the most common oxidation state is +3, seen in its oxide, halides and other compounds; because it occurs so late in the series, however, the +2 oxidation state is also stabilized by the nearly full 4f shell that results. In aqueous solution, like compounds of other late lanthanides, soluble thulium compounds form coordination complexes with nine water molecules. In 1879, the Swedish chemist Per Teodor Cleve separated from the rare earth oxide erbia another two previously unknown components, which he called holmia and thulia; these were the oxides of holmium and thulium, respectively. A relatively pure sample of thulium metal was first obtained in 1911. Thulium is the second-least abundant of the lanthanides, after radioactively unstable promethium which is only found in trace quantities on Earth. It is an easily workable metal with a bright silvery-gray luster. It is fairly soft and slowly tarnishes in air. Despite its high price and rarity, thulium is used as the radiation source in portable X-ray devices, and in some solid-state lasers. It has no significant biological role and is not particularly toxic.

Thulium, 69Tm

Thulium Pronunciation

/ˈθjuːliəm/ (THEW-lee-əm)

Appearance

silvery gray

Standard atomic weight Ar, std(Tm)

168.934 218(6)[1]

Thulium in the periodic table – ↑ Tm ↓ Md erbium ← thulium → ytterbium

Atomic number (Z)

69

Group

group n/a

Period

period 6

Block

f-block [Xe] 4f13 6s2

Electron configuration Electrons per shell

Contents

2, 8, 18, 31, 8, 2

Physical properties Phase at STP

solid

Melting point

1818 K (1545 °C, 2813 °F)

Boiling point

2223 K (1950 °C, 3542 °F)

Density (near r.t.)

9.32 g/cm3

History

when liquid (at m.p.)

8.56 g/cm3

Occurrence

Heat of fusion

16.84 kJ/mol

Production

Heat of vaporization

191 kJ/mol

Applications Laser X-ray source Others

Molar heat capacity

27.03 J/(mol·K)

Properties Physical properties Chemical properties Isotopes

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thulium

Vapor pressure

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Biological role and precautions See also

Thulium - Wikipedia

P (Pa)

1

10

100

1k

10 k

100 k

at T (K)

1117

1235

1381

1570

(1821)

(2217)

References Atomic properties

External links

Properties

Oxidation states

0,[2] +2, +3 (a basic oxide)

Electronegativity

Pauling scale: 1.25

Ionization energies

1st: 596.7 kJ/mol 2nd: 1160 kJ/mol

Physical properties Pure thulium metal has a bright, silvery luster, which tarnishes on exposure to air. The metal can be cut with a knife,[4] as it has a Mohs hardness of 2 to 3; it is malleable and ductile.[5] Thulium is ferromagnetic below 32 K, antiferromagnetic between 32 and 56 K, and paramagnetic above 56 K.[6] Thulium has two major allotropes: the tetragonal α-Tm and the more stable hexagonal β-Tm.[5]

Chemical properties Thulium tarnishes slowly in air and burns readily at 150 °C to form thulium(III) oxide: 4 Tm + 3 O2 → 2 Tm2O3 Thulium is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly with hot water to form thulium hydroxide: 2 Tm (s) + 6 H2O (l) → 2 Tm(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g) Thulium reacts with all the halogens. Reactions are slow at room temperature, but are vigorous above 200 °C: 2 Tm (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 TmF3 (s) (white) 2 Tm (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 TmCl3 (s) (yellow) 2 Tm (s) + 3 Br2 (g) → 2 TmBr3 (s) (white) 2 Tm (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 TmI3 (s) (yellow) Thulium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the pale green Tm(III) ions, which exist as [Tm(OH2)9]3+ complexes:[7]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thulium

3rd: 2285 kJ/mol Atomic radius

empirical: 176 pm

Covalent radius

190±10 pm

Spectral lines of thulium Other properties Natural occurrence

primordial

Crystal structure

hexagonal close-packed (hcp)

Thermal expansion

poly: 13.3 µm/(m⋅K) (at r.t.)

Thermal conductivity

16.9 W/(m⋅K)

Electrical resistivity

poly: 676 nΩ⋅m (at r.t.)

Magnetic ordering

paramagnetic (at 300 K)

Molar magnetic

+25 500 × 10−6 cm3/mol

susceptibility

(291 K)[3]

Young's modulus

74.0 GPa

Shear modulus

30.5 GPa

Bulk modulus

44.5 GPa

Poisson ratio

0.213

Vickers hardness

470–650 MPa

Brinell hardness

470–900 MPa

CAS Number

7440-30-4 History

Naming

after Thule, a mythical region in Scandinavia

Discovery and first isolation

Per Teodor Cleve (1879)

Main isotopes of thulium Iso-

Abun-

Half-life

Decay

Pro-

tope

dance

(t1/2)

mode

duct

167Tm

syn

9.25 d

ε

167Er

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2 Tm (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 3 SO42− (aq) + 3 H2 (g)

Thulium - Wikipedia

Tm3+

(aq) +

168Tm 169Tm

syn 100%

93.1 d

ε

168Er

stable

170Tm 170Yb Thulium reacts with various metallic and nonsyn 128.6 d β− metallic elements forming a range of binary 171Tm 171Yb compounds, including TmN, TmS, TmC2, syn 1.92 y β− Tm2C3, TmH2, TmH3, TmSi2, TmGe3, TmB4, TmB6 and TmB12. In those compounds, thulium exhibits valence states +2 and +3, however, the +3 state is most common and only this state has been observed in thulium solutions.[8] Thulium exists as a Tm3+ ion in solution. In this state, the thulium ion is surrounded by nine molecules of water.[4] Tm3+ ions exhibit a bright blue luminescence.[4]

Thulium's only known oxide is Tm2O3. This oxide is sometimes called "thulia".[9] Reddish-purple thulium(II) compounds can be made by the reduction of thulium(III) compounds. Examples of thulium(II) compounds include the halides (except the fluoride). Some hydrated thulium compounds, such as TmCl3·7H2O and Tm2(C2O4)3·6H2O are green or greenish-white.[10] Thulium dichloride reacts very vigorously with water. This reaction results in hydrogen gas and Tm(OH)3 exhibiting a fading reddish color. Combination of thulium and chalcogens results in thulium chalcogenides.[11] Thulium reacts with hydrogen chloride to produce hydrogen gas and thulium chloride. With nitric acid it yields thulium nitrate, or Tm(NO3)3.[12]

Isotopes The isotopes of thulium range from 145Tm to 179Tm. The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 169Tm, is electron capture, and the primary mode after is beta emission. The primary decay products before 169Tm are element 68 (erbium) isotopes, and the primary products after are element 70 (ytterbium) isotopes.[13] Thulium-169 is thulium's only primordial isotope and is the only isotope of thulium that is thought to be stable; it is predicted to undergo alpha decay to holmium-165 with a very long half-life.[4][14] The longest-lived radioisotopes are thulium-171, which has a half-life of 1.92 years, and thulium-170, which has a half-life of 128.6 days. Most other isotopes have half-lives of a few minutes or less.[15] Thirty-five isotopes and 26 nuclear isomers of thulium have been detected.[4] Most isotopes of thulium lighter than 169 atomic mass units decay via electron capture or beta-plus decay, although some exhibit significant alpha decay or proton emission. Heavier isotopes undergo beta-minus decay.[15]

History Thulium was discovered by Swedish chemist Per Teodor Cleve in 1879 by looking for impurities in the oxides of other rare earth elements (this was the same method Carl Gustaf Mosander earlier used to discover some other rare earth elements).[16] Cleve started by removing all of the known contaminants of erbia (Er2O3). Upon additional processing, he obtained two new substances; one brown and one green. The brown substance was the oxide of the element holmium and was named holmia by Cleve, and the green substance was the oxide of an unknown element. Cleve named the oxide thulia and its element thulium after Thule, an Ancient Greek place name associated with Scandinavia or Iceland. Thulium's atomic symbol was once Tu, but this was changed to Tm.[4][17][18][19][20][21][22]

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Thulium - Wikipedia

Thulium was so rare that none of the early workers had enough of it to purify sufficiently to actually see the green color; they had to be content with spectroscopically observing the strengthening of the two characteristic absorption bands, as erbium was progressively removed. The first researcher to obtain nearly pure thulium was Charles James, a British expatriate working on a large scale at New Hampshire College in Durham, USA. In 1911 he reported his results, having used his discovered method of bromate fractional crystallization to do the purification. He famously needed 15,000 purification operations to establish that the material was homogeneous.[23] High-purity thulium oxide was first offered commercially in the late 1950s, as a result of the adoption of ion-exchange separation technology. Lindsay Chemical Division of American Potash & Chemical Corporation offered it in grades of 99% and 99.9% purity. The price per kilogram oscillated between US$4,600 and $13,300 in the period from 1959 to 1998 for 99.9% purity, and it was the second highest for the lanthanides behind lutetium.[24][25]

Occurrence The element is never found in nature in pure form, but it is found in small quantities in minerals with other rare earths. Thulium is often found with minerals containing yttrium and gadolinium. In particular, thulium occurs in the mineral gadolinite.[26] However, thulium also occurs in the minerals monazite, xenotime, and euxenite. Thulium has not been found in prevalence over the other rare earths in any mineral yet.[27] Its abundance in the Earth's crust is 0.5 mg/kg by weight and 50 parts per billion by moles. Thulium makes up approximately 0.5 parts per million of soil, although this value can range from 0.4 to 0.8 parts per Thulium is found in the mineral million. Thulium makes up 250 parts per quadrillion of [4] monazite seawater. In the solar system, thulium exists in concentrations of 200 parts per trillion by weight and 1 part per trillion by moles.[12] Thulium ore occurs most commonly in China. However, Australia, Brazil, Greenland, India, Tanzania, and the United States also have large reserves of thulium. Total reserves of thulium are approximately 100,000 tonnes. Thulium is the least abundant lanthanide on earth except for the radioactive promethium.[4]

Production Thulium is principally extracted from monazite ores (~0.007% thulium) found in river sands, through ion exchange. Newer ion-exchange and solvent-extraction techniques have led to easier separation of the rare earths, which has yielded much lower costs for thulium production. The principal sources today are the ion adsorption clays of southern China. In these, where about twothirds of the total rare-earth content is yttrium, thulium is about 0.5% (or about tied with lutetium for rarity). The metal can be isolated through reduction of its oxide with lanthanum metal or by calcium reduction in a closed container. None of thulium's natural compounds are commercially important. Approximately 50 tonnes per year of thulium oxide are produced.[4] In 1996, thulium oxide cost US$20 per gram, and in 2005, 99%-pure thulium metal powder cost US$70 per gram.[5]

Applications Thulium has a few applications:

Laser https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thulium

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Thulium - Wikipedia

Holmium-chromium-thulium triple-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Ho:Cr:Tm:YAG, or Ho,Cr,Tm:YAG) is an active laser medium material with high efficiency. It lases at 2080 nm in the Infra-Red and is widely used in military applications, medicine, and meteorology. Single-element thulium-doped YAG (Tm:YAG) lasers operate at 2010 nm.[28] The wavelength of thulium-based lasers is very efficient for superficial ablation of tissue, with minimal coagulation depth in air or in water. This makes thulium lasers attractive for laser-based surgery.[29]

X-ray source Despite its high cost, portable X-ray devices use thulium that has been bombarded with neutrons in a nuclear reactor to produce the isotope Thulium-170, having a half-life of 128.6 days and five major emission lines of comparable intensity (at 7.4, 51.354, 52.389, 59.4 and 84.253 keV).These radioactive sources have a useful life of about one year, as tools in medical and dental diagnosis, as well as to detect defects in inaccessible mechanical and electronic components. Such sources do not need extensive radiation protection – only a small cup of lead.[30] They are among the most popular radiation sources for use in industrial radiography.[31] Thulium-170 is gaining popularity as an X-ray source for cancer treatment via brachytherapy (sealed source radiation therapy).[32][33]

Others Thulium has been used in high-temperature superconductors similarly to yttrium. Thulium potentially has use in ferrites, ceramic magnetic materials that are used in microwave equipment.[30] Thulium is also similar to scandium in that it is used in arc lighting for its unusual spectrum, in this case, its green emission lines, which are not covered by other elements.[34] Because thulium fluoresces with a blue color when exposed to ultraviolet light, thulium is put into euro banknotes as a measure against counterfeiting.[35] The blue fluorescence of Tm-doped calcium sulfate has been used in personal dosimeters for visual monitoring of radiation.[4] Tm-doped halides in which Tm is in its 2+ valence state, are promising luminescent materials that can make efficient electricity generating windows based on the principle of a luminescent solar concentrator, possible.[36]

Biological role and precautions Soluble thulium salts are mildly toxic, but insoluble thulium salts are completely nontoxic.[4] When injected, thulium can cause degeneration of the liver and spleen and can also cause hemoglobin concentration to fluctuate. Liver damage from thulium is more prevalent in male mice than female mice. Despite this, thulium has a low level of toxicity. In humans, thulium occurs in the highest amounts in the liver, kidneys, and bones. Humans typically consume several micrograms of thulium per year. The roots of plants do not take up thulium, and the dry matter of vegetables usually contains one part per billion of thulium.[4] Thulium dust and powder are toxic upon inhalation or ingestion and can cause explosions.

See also Category:Thulium compounds

References 1. Meija, Juris; et al. (2016). "Atomic weights of the elements 2013 (IUPAC Technical Report)" (http s://doi.org/10.1515%2Fpac-2015-0305). Pure and Applied Chemistry. 88 (3): 265–91. doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0305 (https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fpac-2015-0305). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thulium

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2. Yttrium and all lanthanides except Ce and Pm have been observed in the oxidation state 0 in bis(1,3,5-tri-t-butylbenzene) complexes, see Cloke, F. Geoffrey N. (1993). "Zero Oxidation State Compounds of Scandium, Yttrium, and the Lanthanides". Chem. Soc. Rev. 22: 17–24. doi:10.1039/CS9932200017 (https://doi.org/10.1039%2FCS9932200017). and Arnold, Polly L.; Petrukhina, Marina A.; Bochenkov, Vladimir E.; Shabatina, Tatyana I.; Zagorskii, Vyacheslav V.; Cloke (2003-12-15). "Arene complexation of Sm, Eu, Tm and Yb atoms: a variable temperature spectroscopic investigation". Journal of Organometallic Chemistry. 688 (1–2): 49–55. doi:10.1016/j.jorganchem.2003.08.028 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jorganchem.2003.08.028). 3. Weast, Robert (1984). CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton, Florida: Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. pp. E110. ISBN 0-8493-0464-4. 4. Emsley, John (2001). Nature's building blocks: an A-Z guide to the elements (https://books.googl e.com/books?id=Yhi5X7OwuGkC&pg=PA442). US: Oxford University Press. pp. 442–443. ISBN 0-19-850341-5. 5. Hammond, C. R. (2000). "The Elements". Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (81st ed.). CRC press. ISBN 0-8493-0481-4. 6. Jackson, M. (2000). "Magnetism of Rare Earth" (http://www.irm.umn.edu/quarterly/irmq10-3.pdf) (PDF). The IRM Quarterly. 10 (3): 1. 7. "Chemical reactions of Thulium" (https://www.webelements.com/thulium/chemistry.html). Webelements. Retrieved 2009-06-06. 8. Patnaik, Pradyot (2003). Handbook of Inorganic Chemical Compounds (https://books.google.co m/books?id=Xqj-TTzkvTEC&pg=PA934). McGraw-Hill. p. 934. ISBN 0-07-049439-8. 9. Krebs, Robert E (2006). The History and Use of Our Earth's Chemical Elements: A Reference Guide (https://books.google.com/books?id=yb9xTj72vNAC&pg=PA300). ISBN 978-0-313-334382. 10. Eagleson, Mary (1994). Concise Encyclopedia Chemistry (https://books.google.com/books?id=O wuv-c9L_IMC&pg=PA1105). Walter de Gruyter. p. 1105. ISBN 978-3-11-011451-5. 11. Emeléus, H. J.; Sharpe, A. G. (1977). Advances in Inorganic Chemistry and Radiochemistry (http s://books.google.com/books?id=es-Pu2hI5swC). Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-08-057869-9. 12. Thulium (http://www.chemicool.com/elements/thulium.html). Chemicool.com. Retrieved on 201303-29. 13. Lide, David R. (1998). "Section 11, Table of the Isotopes". Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (87th ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0594-2. 14. Belli, P.; Bernabei, R.; Danevich, F. A.; et al. (2019). "Experimental searches for rare alpha and beta decays". European Physical Journal A. 55 (8): 140–1–140–7. arXiv:1908.11458 (https://arxi v.org/abs/1908.11458). Bibcode:2019EPJA...55..140B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019EP JA...55..140B). doi:10.1140/epja/i2019-12823-2 (https://doi.org/10.1140%2Fepja%2Fi2019-12823 -2). ISSN 1434-601X (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1434-601X). S2CID 201664098 (https://api.s emanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201664098). 15. Sonzogni, Alejandro. "Untitled" (https://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat2/reCenter.jsp?z=69&n=97). National Nuclear Data Center. Retrieved 2013-02-20. 16. See: Cleve, P. T. (1879). "Sur deux nouveaux éléments dans l'erbine" (https://babel.hathitrust.org/c gi/pt?id=umn.31951d00008409h;view=1up;seq=484) [Two new elements in the oxide of erbium]. Comptes rendus (in French). 89: 478–480. Cleve named thulium on p. 480: "Pour le radical de l'oxyde placé entre l'ytterbine et l'erbine, qui est caractérisé par la bande x dans la partie rouge du spectre, je propose la nom de thulium, dérivé de Thulé, le plus ancien nom de la Scandinavie." (For the radical of the oxide located between the oxides of ytterbium and erbium, which is characterized by the x band in the red part of the spectrum, I propose the name of "thulium", [which is] derived from Thule, the oldest name of Scandinavia.) Cleve, P. T. (1879). "Sur l'...