Anatomy and Physiology I Unit 2 Exam Review PDF

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Study Guide Exam 2 Ch 5 Integumentary system: Components and functions -

Hair, nails, nerves, muscles, glands, blood vessels

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Protection, homeostasis, sensory info, body temp

Structure of the skin: epidermis, dermis, subQ -

Epidermis: outer (epithelial)

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Dermis: middle inner (connective)

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Hypodermis/SubQ: inner, not part of skin (connective)

Epidermis (epithelial tissue): cell types, layers and main features and functions (includes keratinization), innervation/vascularization, pigment -

Not vascularized, exchange nutrients/waste from dermis

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Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

4 Cell Types 1. Keratinocytes: protection 2. Melanocytes: UV radiation protection 3. Langerhans/Dendritic: Immune responses 4. Merkel/Tactile: touch sensations 4 Layers 1. Stratum Basale/Germ: cell division, produces all other layers 2. Stratum Spinosum: Layers of keratinocytes 3. Stratum Granulosum: Keratinization: keratin and apoptosis 4. Stratum Lucidum: Dead keratinocytes in thick skin 5. Stratum Corneum: Dead keratinocytes shed/replaced by cells from deeper strata Dermis (connective tissue): 2 regions -

Connective tissue, collagen and elastic fibers

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Rich in blood vessels and nerve fibers

2 Layers 1. Pappilary Region: Dermal papillae, touch, free nerve endings 2. Reticular Region: hair follicles, sweat and oil glands Skin color, pigments, melanin and functions 3 Pigments: Melanin, carotene, hemoglobin

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Melanin: Absorbs UV radiation, protects deeper layers, Vitamin D synthesis

Subcutaneous layer/hypodermis -

Rich in adipose tissue, not part of the skin

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Has lamellate Pacinian corpuscles that detect external pressure to skin

Accessory structures: hair, skin glands (sebaceous, sudoriferous), nails Hair: (pili) protection, reduce heat loss, sense light touch receptors -

Dead, keratinized epidermal cells

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Shaft, root, hair follicle, papilla, matrix, arrector pili muscle

Nail: Pick up objects, scratch, pick -

Keratinized epidermal cells

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Free edge, nail body, lunula, cuticle, nail root, matrix

Skin: Oil and sweat glands -

Sebaceous Oil: secrete oily sebum, prevent dehydration of hair and skin, puberty

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Sudoriferous Sweat: Eccrine, Aprocrine

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Eccrine: (merocrine) sweat glands all over body, odorless, clear fluid, cool body by evaporation

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Apocrine: Armpits, genitals, emotional stress, sexual excitement, odor

Functions of Skin: 1. Absorption 2. Blood Reservoir 3. Cutaneous Sensation 4. Excretion 5. Protection 6. Synthesis of VD 7. Thermoregulation Wound healings/burns (in general) Wound Healing: 1. Inflammation: Blood clot, scab formation 2. Restoration of blood supply: fibroblasts produce collagen fibers that bridge gap, epithelial cells multiply

3. Regeneration/Fibrosis: Scar tissue Burns: 1st degree: redness, swelling, pain to epidermis 2nd degree: red, pain, blisters to epidermis and upper dermis 3rd degree: skin grafting all skin layers Ch 6 Bones Components and functions of bones and skeletal system

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Bones, cartilages, ligaments, tendons 1. Hemopoiesis: Red bone marrow produces red, white blood cells, platelets 2. Mineral Homeostasis: calcium, phosphorus storage 3. Movement: Skeletal muscle attaches to bones 4. Protection: cranium, vertebrae, ribs 5. Support: body and soft tissues, attachment for tendons, muscles, ligaments 6. Triglyceride Storage: Yellow bone marrow, stored in adipose cells

2 Divisions: axial and appendicular skeleton Axial: Skull, hyoid bone, ears, thorax (sternum, ribs), vertebral column Appendicular: Upper, lower limbs, pectoral, pelvic girdles Bone surface markings

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Structural features adapted for specific functions

2 Types: 1. Depressions/Openings: Let blood vessels and nerves through, form joints 2. Projections/Processes: outgrowths that form joints, attachment point for ligaments and tendons Long bone anatomy 1. Epiphysis: proximal, distal ends 2. Metaphysis: epiphyseal growth plate 3. Diaphysis: shaft 4. Articular Cartilage: Hyaline cartilage 5. Periosteum: outer membrane 6. Endosteum: inner membrane 7. Medullary Cavity: yellow bone marrow

Histology: cell types (names + functions) and extracellular matrix

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Types

1. Osteogenic: cell division 2. Osteoblast: bone building, synthesize extra cellular matrix 3. Osteocyte: mature bone cells, maintain extracellular matrix, eats osteoblast 4. Osteoclast: eats osteocytes, resorption, regulates blood calcium level, allows new bone formation Compact, spongy bone, osteon, central canals, lacunae, canaliculi, trabeculae

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Compact: strongest, external, protection, support

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Osteons, haversian systems concentrically surrounded by llamellae, lacunae, osteocytes, caniliculi

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Spongey: internal

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Lacks osteons, llamellae columns latticely arranged called trabeculae that contain lacunae and osteocytes, red bone marrow, hemopoiesis

Hemopoiesis, red bone marrow

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Red bone marrow is for blood cell production in spongey bone

Ossification, calcification

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Ossification: Bone building/formation by osteoblasts, connective or cartilage tissue replaced by bone tissue

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Calcification: During ossification, hardening of tissue

Prenatal ossification: intramembranous (mesenchyme to bone – flat bones) and endochondral/ intracartilaginous (cartilage to bone – most other bones) 2 Types (Prenatal) 1. Intramembranous Ossification: (within membranes)

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Mesenchyme (primitive connective tissue)  flat bones

2. Endochondral/Intracartilaginous Ossification: (involves cartilage)

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Hyaline cartilage tissue  bone 1. Hyaline cartilage model 2. Primary Ossification Center: (diaphysis) cartilage calcifies, dies, creates cavity 3. Blood vessels and osteoblasts invade cavity in spongey bone 4. Osteoclasts break down spongey bone and create medullary cavity and compact bone 5. Secondary Ossification Center: (epiphysis) ???

Postnatal ossification - lengthen: interstitial growth at the epiphyseal plate (cartilage to bone) and thickness growth: appositional growth (bone to bone)

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Growth of thickness/length always occurs at epiphyseal plate and close at epiphyseal line

Length: Cartilage  bone

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Interstitial growth at epiphyseal growth plate

Thickness: Bone  Bone

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Appositional growth

Bone remodeling (osteoclasts, osteoblasts)

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Adult bone tissue continually renewing itself

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Osteoblast: Deposition of calcium from blood to bone

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Osteoclast: Resorption of calcium from bone to blood

Factors affecting bone growth and remodeling: Ca, exercise, weight lifting/gravity, hormones (PTH/Calcitonin, Growth hormone, sex hormones), minerals, vitamins 2 Factors: 1. Ca2+ homeostasis in blood (for nerve, muscle cells, blood clots, enzymes) 2. Mechanical and gravitational forces on pull of skeletal muscles (exercise, weight lifting) 3. Minerals: Calcium, Phosphorus 4. Vitamins A,C,D,K,B12 Hormonal Regulation: 1. Parathyroid Hormone: (PTH) Elevates blood calcium levels 2. Calcitonin: Lowers blood calcium levels Hormones:

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HGH: Giantism, dwarfism, acromegaly

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Sex: Estrogen, testosterone (growth spurt)

Osteoporosis/osteopenia Osteopenia: risk for osteoporosis Osteoporosis: Excessive loss of calcium, weak, fragile, small bones Ch 7: Skeletal system: know bones names, location, and main features 2 divisions Axial:

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Longitudinal axis

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Skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, thorax (sternum, ribs)

Skull: cranial bones + facial bones Cranial bones:

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Frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital, sphenoid, ethnoid

Facial bones:

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Nasal, Maxilla (2), Mandible, zygomatic, lacrimal (2), palantine, inferior nasal conche, vomer

Sutures (names, connecting bones), Paranasal sinuses, Fontanels Sutures: Immovable joints that hold most skulls bones together

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Sagittal Suture, Coronal Suture, Squamous Suture, Lamboid Suture

Paranasal Sinuses: Cavities within cranial and facial bones near nasal cavity

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Secretions: produced by mucous membranes lining sinus, drain into nasal cavity

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Resonating chambers for sounds

Fontanels: (soft spots)

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Unossified tissue bones with sutures to connect cranial bones at birth

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Provide flexibility to fetal skull, changing shape coming through birth canal

Vertebral column: functions, natural and abnormal spinal curves, supporting structures

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Spine, backbone, spinal column

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26 bones (vertebrae), spinal cord (nervous tissue), supporting structures (connective tissue)

Functions:

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Protect spinal cord

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Support head

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Attachment for ribs, pelvic girdle, muscles

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Movement

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Upright posture

Natural Curves:

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Column strength, elasticity, balance, absorbs shock

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2 Concave (primary, thoracic, sacral), 2 Convex (secondary, cervical, lumbar)

Abnormal Curves:

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Scoliosis

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Lordosis

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Kyphosis

Intervertebral disks: composition, function, pathology

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Shock absorbers and movement of vertebral column between vertebrae

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Fibrocartilaginous cushions

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Annulus fibrosus: tough, outer, fibrocartilage

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Nucleus Polposum: soft, inner, looser fibers gel

Regions of Vertebral column

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26 bones

1. Cervical: C1-C7 2. Thoracic: T1-T12 3. Lumbar: L1-L5 4. Sacrum- Triangular bone Coccyx- Triangular bone General structure for a vertebra

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Anterior body

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Vertebral arch: pedicles, lamina, vertebral foramen

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Processes: Points of muscle attachment, spinous/transverse process

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Facets: Articulation for vertebrae/ribs

Vertebrae features for each region, ~amounts of movements allowed: be able to recognize vertebra by vertebral column region

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7 vertebrae, support head, flexion, extension, rotation

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Cervical: (C1-C7) C1-Atlas, C2-Axis, C7-Vertebral prominens

Thoracic cage: sternum (manubrium, body, xiphoid process), ribs (false and true) Sternum:

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Manubrium: Articulates with clavicle

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Body: Articulated with costal cartilage of ribs

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Xiphoid Process: Attachment for abdominal muscles, pointy

Ribs:

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Anterior: w/sternum through costal hyaline cartilage

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Posterior: w/thoracic vertebrae

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True: Ribs 1-7, direct attachment

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False: Ribs 8-12, indirect attachment, (8-10 costal to 7), (11-12 floating)

Appendicular skeleton:

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Upper and lower limbs, pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle (connects limbs to axial skeleton)

Pectoral girdle (clavicle, scapula) (2 bones) Clavicle:

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Medial articulates with manubrium of sternum (sternoclavicular joint)

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Lateral articulates with acromion of scapula (acromioclavicular joint)

Scapula:

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Spine: large posterior process

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Acromion: (bigger) Articulates with lateral clavicle

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Coracoid Process: (smaller hook) Anterior projection, muscle attachment

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Glenoid Cavity: Articulates with head of humerus

Upper limb: humerus, ulna, radius, carpal bones, metacarpal, phalanges (30 bones) Humerus:

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Head articulates with glenoid cavity of scapula

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Greater and lesser tubercle

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Distal end articulates at elbow with radius and ulna

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Deltoid Tuberosity

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Capitulum: Lateral, articulates with head of radius

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Trochlea: Medial, Articulates with head of ulna

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Coronoid Fossa: Anterior depression, receives coronoid process of ulna during forearm flexion

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Olecranon Fossa: Posterior, receives olecranon of ulna during forearm extension (elbow)

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Medial/Lateral epicondyle: projections for muscle attachments

Ulna (medial/pinky)

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Olecranon: tip of elbow

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Coronoid process: Anterior Proximal part of ulna

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Trochlear Notch: Receives trochlea of humerus during elbow flexion

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Styloid Process: Point projection on ulna’s head

Radius: (Lateral/thumb)

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Head articulates with capitulum of humerus and radial notch of ulna

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Radial tuberosity:

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Styloid Process: Large distal projection on lateral side of radius

Radius/Ulna: Interosseus Membrane: Connect shaft of ulna and radius

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Proximal Radioulnar joint, distal radioulnar joint

Carpals (8) - wrist (Stop Letting Those People Touch The Cadavers Hand)

Proximal Row: Scaphoid, Lunate, Triquetrum, Pisiform, Distal Row: Trapezium, Trapezoid, Capitate, Hamate Metacarpals( /Phalanges (19) Pelvic girdle: 3 hip bones: ilium, ischium, pubis

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2 Hip bones: Coxal, pelvic with illium, pubic, ischium

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2 coxal bones joined by anterior pubic symphyses and posterior saccrum

Lower limb: femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges Tibia: Medial, bigger

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Proximal, lateral and medial condyles, articulate with femur

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Articulates distally with talus and fibula

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Medial Malleolus: distal medial surface of ankle joint/talus

Fibia: Lateral, smaller

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Lateral Malleolus: distal lateral surface articulates with talus and tibia

Femur: (thigh)

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Head articulates with acetabulum of hip bone forming coxal joint

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Greater and less trochanter

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Condyle: Distal, medial and lateral articulate with condyles of tibia forming knee joint (patella)

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Epicondyle: Distal, medial and lateral, attachment for muscles

Patella: (knee cap) Talus: (ankle)

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Articulates with tibia and fibula

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Calcaneus: (heel), navicular cuboid, 3 cuneiforms

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5 metatarsals, 14 phalanges

Ch 8 Joints Definition, functions Joints: (Articulations) sites where 2 or more bones meet

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Mobility, hold skeleton together

Classification by structure: fibrous (sutures, syndesmosis, gomphosis), cartilaginous (synchondrosis, symphysis), synovial (all structures of synovial joints and their functions) 3 Types 1. Fibrous: dense connective fibrous tissue

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Syndesmoses: tib-fib

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Suture: coronal suture

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Gomphoses: (peg or nail fitting in socker) root of teeth in socket

2. Cartilaginous: articular hyaline cartilage

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Synchondroses: costal cartilage of rib

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Symphyses: Pubis symphyses

3. Synovial: synovial fluid joint cavity Features:

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Articular Cartilage

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Articular capsule

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Synovial membrane

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Fibrous capsule

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Joint cavity

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Ligaments

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Synovial fluid

Classification by function: synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis, diarthrosis (amount of movement each allows) 3 Types: 1. Synarthroses: not moveable Ex) skull sutures 2. Amphiarthroses: Slightly moveable Ex) intervertebral disk 3. Diarthroses: moveable Ex) joints of appendicular skeleton Supporting elements: reinforcing ligaments, menisci, bursae, tendon sheaths 4 Types: 1. Reinforcing Ligaments: hold bones together

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Extracapsular: OPL, APL, LFCL, MTCL

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Intracapsular: ACL, PCL

2. Articular Disks: (knee/menisci)

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Pads of fibrocartilage between articular surface bone ends that improve fit

Bursae and Tendon Sheaths: (Bags of lubricant) 3. Bursae: (purse)

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Flat, sac like structure with synovial fluid where rubbing occurs

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Cushion, reduce friction

4. Tendon Sheaths:

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Elongated bursae that wrap around tendons to reduce friction

Range of motion: uniaxial, biaxial, triaxial (examples) 3 Types 1. Uni/Monoaxial: 1 plane Ex) Elbow, knee 2. Biaxial: 2 planes Ex) Wrist

3. Tri/Multiaxial: 3 planes Ex) Shoulder Types of MOVEMENT at synovial joints: gliding/planar, angular (flexion/extension/hyperextension, abduction/adduction, circumduction), rotation, special movements (elevation/depression, protraction/retraction, inversion/eversion,...), examples 1. Gliding/Planar: Back and forth, side to side

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Ex) Intercarpal/tarsal joints, between vertebrae

2. Flexion/Extension/Hyperextension: Bend/decrease, stretch/increase, beyond

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Ex) Elbow, knee, arm, leg

3. Lateral Flexion: Movement of trunk sideways twist 4. Adduction/Abduction: outward, inward from midline

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Ex) hands, feet

5. Circumduction: Movement of distal body part in a circle

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Ex) Arm, leg

6. Rotation: Bone revolves around its own longitudinal axis

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Ex) Head nodding no, between C1-C2 vertebrae

7. Elevation/Depression: Upward/downward

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Ex) Closing and opening mouth

8. Protraction/Retraction: Moving body part anteriorly to back to normal

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Ex) Moving mandible outward and back in

9. Inversion/Eversion: movement medially/laterally

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Ex) Foot

10. Plantarflexion/Dorsiflexion: Being upward/downward

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Ex) Foot

11. Pronation/Supination: upward/downward

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Ex) movement of forearm palm turned upward/downward

12. Opposition: movement of thumb to touch fingertips on same hand Classification of synovial joints based on SHAPE of articular surfaces (planar, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, ball-and-socket): examples 6 Types: 1....