Biology 150 Exam 3 Study Guide PDF

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Biology 150 Exam 3 Study Guide...

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Bio150, Keck, Spring 2018 –Exam 3 Study Guide ❖ Dr. Keck studies: Fish ❖ Five major learning objectives: be able to relate these to scenarios or examples ➢ Evolution: populations or organisms have changed through time by both selective and non-selective processes ➢ Structure and Function: all living systems are made of structural components ➢ Information Flow and Storage: information and signals are used within and among organisms to direct their functioning ➢ Transformations of Energy and Matter: all living things acquire, use, and release matter and energy for cellular/organismal functioning ➢ Systems: living systems are interconnected, and interact on multiple levels ❖ Intro to Ecology ➢ Definitions and scale of different ecological fields of study ■ Ecology: the study of interactions between organisms and their environment ● Organismal Ecology: Evolutionary adaptations that enable individual organisms to survive in their environment ◆ We can form Predictive Models ◆ Predictive models allows us to save species, map their range and if there is a disturbance, relocate them ● Population Ecology: Studies processes and population growth, density, and how members of a population coexist ◆ Demographics ◆ Environmental and Growth Limitations (Resources/Space) ● Community Ecology: Studies interactions between species and how these interactions affect community structure and organization ◆ Competition ◆ Predation ◆ Symbiosis ● Ecosystem Ecology: Broadens to include interactions between communities with abiotic factors included. Emphasis on energy flow and chemical cycling between living and nonliving components among and between communities ➢ What types of questions do we ask and what can we do with the information gained with each of the ecologies? ■ Organismal Ecology: Where they breed?, what they eat?, why they move around the environment? ● With answers we can make predictive models ◆ These allow us to save species, map range, relocate if there is a disturbance, and prepare for change (climate)

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Population Ecology: How fast do they reproduce?, How many resources can support a population?, Why does the population decrease/increase? ● We can understand population limitations ● Population patterns such as in migration or dispersion ● We can form population growth models, such as E. Coli dividing every twenty minutes Community Ecology: How do multiple species using one resource manage to survive? How does the population using this resource affect the ecosystem or its competition? ● We can find out what happens when a keystone predator is removed Ecosystem Ecology: How does this community affect this other community? How do chemicals (C, N, P) move through this system? ● We can use this information to solve major issues from human growth and urbanization

➢ Niche ■ Role in the ecosystem - includes the species interactions with biotic and abiotic factors in its environment ● How the species’ needs are met ● How the species’ survives ● How the species’ reproduces ◆ These are all factors associated with a niche ➢ Competition ■ More than one species with the same or overlapping niches and can be interspecific or intraspecific ● Interspecific - Competition between multiple species ● Intraspecific - Competition within a single species ■ Competition arises from limitations in territory, resources, mates, etc. ➢ Latitude and Longitude ■ Latitude: is horizontal, think of the Equator ■ Longitude is vertical; think of the Prime Meridian. ● If you have trouble remembering which is which know that the phrase ‘Prime Meridian’ is longer (longitude) than the phrase ‘Equator’ (latitude) ➢ Climate Zones ■ Climate is long-term weather patterns. ● Temperature, Humidity, Wind, etc. ● Influenced by latitude, altitude, terrain, and bodies of water ■ Climate zones are divisions of climate into general areas according to average temperature and rainfall

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❖ Climate Change and Fish Ecology ➢ Expected abiotic patterns of changes ■ Increasing temperatures due to climate change. ■ Pollutants entering a system from industry or agricultural run-off ■ Climate changes such as drought ➢ Potential biotic changes due to abiotic changes ■ Loss of species ■ Species migration ■ New species fill niches left open by those lost or driven off ➢ Species’ ranges and community interactions ■ Larger range means more interaction within the community ■ Smaller range means less interaction within the community but there is a limitation on population growth as resources are not as extensive ➢ Food webs ■ Interconnecting food chains, what eats what and what is competing

❖ Population Ecology ➢ Population density and distribution ■ Population density: the number of individuals of a species per unit area or volume at a given time ● How many wolves are in this 100 sq. mi. area in Yellowstone ■

Population Distribution: The spread of a population

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Clumped - most common in nature, associated with patchy resources, clump around crucial resources Uniform - evenly spaced distribution that is episodic, distance between individuals is maximized usually from competition for a resource Random - unpredictable spacing, usually occurs in an area where resources are consistent

➢ How do we measure population change? ■ Rate of Growth = (Births - Deaths) + (Immigrants - Emigrants) ➢ Patterns of population growth ■ Exponential Growth - Under Ideal Conditions, high number of resources, etc. ■ Logistical Growth - not under ideal conditions, limits in resources, densitydependent factors

➢ Limits of population growth ■ Environmental resistance, amounts or resources, occupiable space, carry capacity (K) ● Carry Capacity (K) - is the size of population that can be supported in an area ➢ Density dependent and independent factors of population growth ■ Density Dependent Factor: A factor limiting the size of a population, this factor is dependent on the size of the population

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Examples: predation, disease, competition Boom-or-Bust Populations cycles ◆ Boom - Rapid Growth followed by Bust ◆ Bust - Population Falls back to Minimal Levels ➢ Example - The economy growth, money flow makes more jobs ➢ No money flow means new jobs cannot be made or jobs need to be cut Density Independent Factors: Any factor that limits a population’s size but is not dependent on the size of that population ◆ Examples: Natural Disasters, Frost, Fire

➢ Reproductive strategies ■ R-Selected Species: ● Large Litter, Little/No Parental Care, Early Maturity, Small Size, Low Life Span ● Example: Mice/Rodents ■ K-Selected Species: ● Long Lived, Mature Late, Large Body Size, Low Reproductive Rates, High Survival Rates ● Example: Elephants and Humans ➢ Demography - Demographics ■ Population Structure and predicting growth ■ Example - If there are high birth rates and low death rates you expect to see exponential growth ❖ Community Ecology ➢ Types of species interactions ■ Competition (-/-) ● Spiders and Toads competing over Grasshoppers ■ Predation (+/-) ● Spiders eating Grasshoppers ■ ■ ■ ■

Mutualism (+/+) ● Ants giving protection to trees in return for shelter Commensalism (+/o) ● Clownfish and Sea Anemone Intraspecific Competition: competition between individuals in one species Interspecific Competition: competition between more than one species

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➢ Results of competition ■ Competition drives speciation, adaptive radiation is usually involved to take advantage of a resource, allowing a new niche space to be taken and reduce competition ● Adaptive Radiation - Diversification of a group of organisms to fill a different ecological niche ➢ How a changing environment may change interactions ■ If a new species is introduced because the environment changed then this interaction could force species into other niches ■ Opening of niches can occur if a species is forced out of an environment ■ Many more reasons to how an environmental change can affect interactions ➢ Species richness and evenness ■ Species Richness - is the number of species in an ecological community ■ Species Evenness - is the abundance and distributions of these species ➢ Competitive Exclusion ■ Competitive Exclusion Principle: Sometimes referred to as Gause’s Law, states that two species competing for the same LIMITING resource cannot coexist at a constant population ➢ Character displacement ■ Morphological differences in sympatric species vs. allopatric species ● Sympatric Species - Similar species that exist in the same geographical area and frequently interact with one another ◆ This constant interaction accentuates differences in these species ◆ Example would be the beaks of Darwin’s Finches ◆ Leads to Resource Partitioning ➢ Resource Partitioning - the differentiation of niches enables two similar species to coexist in a community ● Allopatric Species - Same species become isolated from changes in the environment (usually geographical) ❖ Dispersal ■ Dispersal - Extension of the geographic range of a species by movement of individuals ● Geographic range is not static but dynamic ● “There’s shit on islands.” - DA Etnier ➢ Describe patterns of dispersal (See Population Distribution Above) ■ Randomly dispersed, clumped, and uniform.

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Clumped - most common in nature, associated with patchy resources, clump around crucial resources ● Uniform - evenly spaced distribution that is episodic, distance between individuals is maximized usually from competition for a resource ● Random - unpredictable spacing, usually occurs in an area where resources are consistent Links between dispersal and organism traits and community dynamics ■ Different species disperse in different ways to improve their community dynamics. ■ For example: ● Clumped - Apple trees have a clumped formation to help spread their seeds more easily. ● Random - Dandelions have a random dispersal, they occur randomly based on where their seeds are dispersed ● Uniform - Wolves have a nearly uniform distribution to help them defend their land/hunt. Great American Biotic interchange ■ Dispersal after Adaptation ● The Split of N. America and S. America caused species to evolve independently of one another ● Isthmus of Panama forms and these species can interact ◆ Move from N. to S. America and from S. to N. America ● As these organisms moved into new communities they could have faced strong competition from already established organisms ● Old organisms had the advantage over novel species from coevolution in their community Wallace’s Line ■ Breakpoint in the faunas/flora in-between Asia and Australia ● Fauna - Animals of a particular region ● Flora - Plants of a particular region Island biogeography and expectations ■ Equilibrium Theory - Balance between colonization and extinction ● Crossing point of things dying and coming in = Equilibrium number ● Equilibrium number shifts from island size and distance from mainland ● So we expect smaller islands that are further away from the mainland to reach this equilibrium slower than the larger islands that are at the same distance from or closer to the mainland Succession and community change ■ The Pioneer species will be numerous as it will fill the niche with limited resistance ● Example: Weeds, Grasses

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This will give way to successor species like bushes, who will outcompete the weeds and grasses Then trees will succeed bushes ● Now the island has grass, weeds, bushes, and trees ● But there will not be bushes under trees or grass under bushes because of these community changes

❖ Biomes ➢ Characteristics of terrestrial and aquatic biomes ■ Terrestrial Biomes - Defined based on plant community traits ● Focus on the limiting variables, how they govern Net Primary Productivity, and how they govern biodiversity ◆ Tropical Rainforest ➢ Lots of water, but seasonal (rainy/dry season) ➢ Little change in temperature or light throughout year ➢ High Biodiversity ◆ Savanna Grasslands ➢ Seasonal Rain and Seasonal Fires ➢ Migratory Organisms (Move for food) ◆ Deserts: Hot and Cold ➢ Very limited water ➢ Slow growth ➢ Easily disturbed ➢ Organisms are tolerant of extreme conditions ◆ Chaparral ➢ Wet and Dry seasonally ➢ Few tall trees ◆ Temperate Grasslands ➢ Seasonal rain and fire ➢ Wide temperature range ➢ Few trees, lots of grasses ➢ Many migratory organisms ◆ Temperate Forests ➢ Regular precipitation and temperature ➢ Deciduous (resource saving technique) ➢ Lots of structure ■ Vegetation increases ■ Habitat heterogeneity ■ More Niches and higher biodiversity ◆ Coniferous Forests ➢ Less precipitation, cooler and longer winters ➢ Largest terrestrial biome ➢ Migratory animals or hibernating animals

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◆ Tundra ➢ Fairly cold and dry, short summers, permafrost ➢ Migratory animals ➢ Affected the most by warming (increases release of Carbon, Nitrogen, and Phosphorous ◆ Polar Ice ➢ Very cold, very short summer, little precipitation ➢ Physiologically unique creatures Aquatic Biomes ● Focus on the limiting variables, how they govern Net Primary Productivity, and how they govern biodiversity ◆ Freshwater Ecosystem ➢ Very Little Salt ➢ Lotic Habitats (Streams and Rivers) ➢ Lentic Habitats (Ponds and Lakes) ■ Experience Thermal Stratification ● Turnover of water column caused by changing in temperatures ◆ Transitional Communities ➢ Estuaries ■ Brackish waters and tidal ➢ Wetlands - bogs/fens, swamps, marshes ■ Low oxygen and high acidity ■ Incredibly productive ◆ Marine Ecosystems - determined by Photic zones, because light attenuates quickly in water ➢ Intertidal zones and coral reefs ■ Highly productive with lots of light and primary producers ➢ Open Oceans ■ Decreasing productivity with increasing depth

➢ Are the same species in the same biomes around the world? ■ No, because of things like speciation

❖ Ecosystems ➢ How does energy and matter move through systems? ■ Food webs with trophic levels. ■ Usually, energy from the Sun → Primary Producers → Primary Consumers → Secondary Consumers → Detritus → Other Microorganisms ■ Each trophic level releases heat energy

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➢ Limiting nutrients ■ Nitrogen and Phosphorous in the soil can be limiting ■ Depending on drought or location, water can be limiting ■ If a trophic level is missing then the nutrient cycle limits the amount of resources in circulation ➢ Primary production and trophic levels ■ Primary producers use photosynthesis to create ATP. Primary consumers eat primary producers, secondary consumers eat primary consumers, and so on. Energy is lost at each successive trophic level through heat ➢ Biomass production around the world in different biomes ■ Certain biomes are more productive ■ Coral reefs are highly diverse along with rainforests. ■ See Biomes Section ❖ Urban Ecology ➢ % Human population in urban vs. rural areas ■ About 80% in urban, 20% in rural. ➢ How do urban centers concentrate resources? ■ Urban centers take in a lot of resources but do not put a lot back out. ■ It takes a lot to build up an urban area ■ There also is not a lot of environmental give back from an urban area ➢ What does the urban ecological footprint look like? ■ Urban Ecological Footprint - Geographical measure of an urban population’s demand on natural capital. ■ The size of the footprint is a sum of all land required to supply resources and absorb wastes ■ The urban ecological footprint is very large because of all the resources it uses. The carbon footprint is especially large because of fossil fuel use. ➢ Give an example of an ecosystem service ■ Benefits Humans

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Example - Water purification from soil filtration, microorganisms, and root systems ➢ How can we combine resource areas with waste assimilation areas? Why would we do that? ■ Putting solar panels on landfills. This saves land. ➢ Rural to urban biodiversity gradient: patterns, drivers, categories of species

➢ Fragmented habitats and ways to connect them ■ Fragmented habitats: Parks and other urban green spaces, result in population isolation ■ Fixed By: ● Ceasing urban sprawl (not likely) ◆ Urban Sprawl - Uncontrolled expansion of urban areas ● Urban sharing ◆ Green Spaces on abandoned lots or rooves ◆ Multi-Purposing Land ➢ Solar/Wind Farms on Landfills ● Dispersal Corridors - connects green spaces to each other, allows for wildlife to move ◆ Like the Isthmus of Panama for N. and S. America ➢ Test questions from powerpoint: ■ A) Provide one example from around campus of how urbanization could be reducing biodiversity. ● Construction around UTK ■ B) Explain how that might reduce biodiversity. ● Reduces biodiversity by taking away resources from local species to use ■ C) What can be done to restore or reduce the effects of your example? ● We could designate areas of land for preservation or limit the amount of construction

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❖ Climate Change ➢ Drivers of climate change ■ CO2 and Greenhouse gases ● Other Gases: Methane, Nitrous Oxide ■ Trap excess heat in Earth’s atmosphere ● 1% of the energy from the Sun is captured by primary producers ● The rest is reflected back into space ● Greenhouse Gases cause this heat to become trapped ➢ Carbon Dioxide levels through time ■ Carbon Dioxide levels have been increasing overtime

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In winter there is more CO2 in the air of the Northern Hemisphere because plants are not taking in as much ➢ Temperature through time ■ Temperature has been increasing over time as well ● It will occasionally level out though as we see post 2000 on the graph below

➢ Weather pattern changes due to temperature and deforestation ■ Wind Pattern Changes

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Power Usage Restriction in the Summer ● Nuclear Plants have to shut down because water used for cooling is too hot ■ Flooding ■ Stronger Storms with Higher Tides ➢ Effects of climate change ■ Georgia wanting to move borders ■ Species Extirpation ● Cease to exist in one area ■ Changes in weather patterns ■ New Species Interaction ● Migration ● Competition

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