General Psych 1101 Module 7,8,9 - Detailed Chapter Text Notes from Cengage with Professor Peach PDF

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Detailed Chapter Text Notes from Cengage with Professor Peach...

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Module 7: Basic Consciousness Concepts Biologists agree on what is alive, but not on what life is Beginning: psychology was “the description of and explanation of states of consciousness” 1960s: defined psychology as “the science of behavior” Cognition: mental processes Consciousness: subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment ● Feinberg & Mallatt ● Awareness allows us to assemble info. from sources as we reflect on the past, adapt to the present, and plan for the future ● Focuses our attention when we learn a complex concept or behavior ● Go between different states of consciousness ● Helps to cope with novel situations and long-term interests ● Promotes survival Evolutionary psychologists believe consciousness offers a reproductive advantage Marvin Minsky (1986): “the mind is what the brain does” - We still don’t know how it does it Cognitive neuroscience: the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with our mental processes of perception, thinking, memory, and language Weak stimulus: may trigger localized visual cortex activity that quickly fades - A word flashed too briefly to perceive Strong stimulus: engages other brain areas - Involves languages, attention, memory Reverberating activity: a telltale sign of conscious awareness - Detected by brain scans Selective attention: our awareness focuses on a minute aspect of all that we experience - Cocktail party effect: to attend to one voice among a sea of others voices - 40% of our brain awareness is decreased when talking while driving Consciously we take in 11M bits of info. per second Unconsciously our mind makes use of 10,999,960 bits per second A toll: a slight and sometimes fatal delay in coping - Switching attentional gears especially in complex tasks Inattentional blindness: failing to see visible objective when our attention is directed elsewhere; a by-product of what we are good at - Ulric Neisser (1979) and Robert Becklen & Daniel Cervone (1983) Simons & Chabris (1999): gorilla-suited assistant through basketball experiment Attention is powerfully selective. Your conscious mind is in one place at a time Change blindness: failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness - “Out of sight, out of mind” Swedish research by Johansson: switches faces of pictures

Change deafness: small changes that most people don’t notice Popout: majority of people notice a big change on the environment - Changing a female interviewer to a male interviewer Three attention principles: 1. Selective attention 2. Inattentional blindness 3. Change blindness Much of our brain work occurs off stage, out of sight Two levels: High road vs. low road High road is reflective, the low road is intuitive Dual processing: info. is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks - We know more than we know we know Blindsight: a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it Goodale and Milner: book, Sight Unseen Visual perception track: to recognize things and to plan future actions; “to think about the world’ Visual action track: guides our moment-to-moment movements Damaged left visual cortex: blind to objects/ faces, but can sense emotion expressed in faces Below cortex: process emotion-related info. Consciousness sometimes arrives late to the decision-making party Parallel processing: enables your mind to take care of routine business - Unconscious; faster processing Sequential processing: best for solving new problems - Conscious; slower processing - Requires our focused attention on one thing at a time - Ex: patting the top of your head & rubbing your belly Dreaming: an altered state of consciousness that is spontaneously induced - Ex: daydreaming Meditation: an altered state of consciousness that is psychologically induced - Ex: entering a state of hypnosis with the aid of a psychologist Module 8: Sleep and Dreams Sleep: a periodic, natural loss of consciousness EEG recordings confirm that the brain’s auditory cortex responds to sound stimuli even during sleep (Kutas, 1990) Awake or asleep, you process most info. outside your conscious awareness Two biological rhythms: 1. 24-hour biological clock

2. 90-minute sleep cycle Circadian rhythm: an internal biological clock - Circa = “about” - Diem = “day’ - Age & experience alter this rhythm Night owl tend to be smart and creative Morning types (lark) tend to do better in school, take more initiative, be more punctual, and be less vulnerable to depression Aserinsky (1988) & Seligman and Yellen (1987): 8-year-old goes to bed, is awaken by his father to test a machine - Results: discovered the boy had 90-minute distinct sleep stages REM sleep: rapid eye movement; a recurring sleep stage with vivid dreams REM dreams: vivid, emotional, and often bizarre Most dreams: are about everyday settings, people, activities, and events Scalp: detects brain waves Chin: detects muscle tension Outside corner of the eyes: detect eye movement Alpha waves: the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state Beta waves: alert wakefulness William Dement: observed the brain’s perceptual window to the outside - Sleep-deprived man with this eyelids taped open had fallen asleep for 2 seconds even with a strobe light flashing in his eyes NREM-1 (American Academy of Sleep Medicine classification of sleep stages) - Hallucinations: sensory experiences that occur without a sensory stimulus - These hypnagogic sensations may be incorporated into memory later NREM - 2 - Sleep spindles: bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity - Could be awaken without much difficulty, but still are asleep - Spend about half your night in this stage NREM - 3 - Slow-wave sleep that lasts around 30-minutes - Delta waves: large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep - Stage where children wet the bed - This stage grows shorter and disappears - Sleepwalking stage REM - 4th stage - Lasts about 10-minutes - Heart rate rises, breathing becomes rapid/ irregular, and every half-minute your closed eyes dart around bursts of activity - Eye movement: announces the beginning of a dream

- REM is the reason you think dreams could be real - 80% of people will report being in a dream if waken in this stage - Genitals become aroused - Young men outlast REM periods, lasting on average 30-45 minutes - Brain’s motor cortex is active, but messages are blocked - Aka paradoxical sleep: the body is internally aroused yet asleep and externally calm - When morning comes, we spent 20% - 25% in REM sleep - Difficulty recalling info. Sleep Patterns: genetically influenced and culturally influenced Bright light affects circadian clock by activating light-sensitive retinal proteins Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN): a pear of grain-of-rice sized, 10,000-cell clusters in the hypothalamus - Causes the brain’s pineal gland to decrease from production of melatonin (forced to be used at night, but to “disappear” when morning comes around) Desynchronization: develops when you stay up long hours in the night; factors of fatigue, stomach problems, heart disease Five reasons of why we sleep: 1. Sleep protects: has survival value 2. Sleep helps us recuperate: helps restore the immune system, repair brain tissue, and gives testing neutrons time to repair 3. Sleep helps restore and rebuild our fading memories of the day’s experience: to sleep is to strengthen; consolidates our memories by replaying recent learning/ strengthening neural connections 4. Sleep feeds creative thinking: can inspire artistic and scientific achievements 5. Sleep supports growth: the pituitary gland releases a growth hormone that is necessary for muscle development Regular full night’s sleep can “dramatically improve your athletic ability” Sleep lost is known as the “Great Sleep Recession” by some researchers - A predictor of depression Lack of sleep can make you gain weight Sleep deprivation: - Increases ghrelin, a hunger-arousing hormone, and decreases its hunger suppressing partner, leptin - Decreases metabolic rate, a gauge of energy use - Increases production of cortisol, a stress hormone that stimulates the body to make fat - Enhances limbic brain responses to the mere sight of food and decreases cortical responses that help us resist temptation Stanley Coren: discovered spring-forward time change increases accidents - shortens sleep Sleep disorders: - Insomnia: ongoing difficulty falling or staying sleep

- results in tiredness and increased risk of depression - Narcolepsy: sudden attacks of overwhelming sleepiness (opposite effect of insomnia) - Sleep apnea: stopping breathing repeatedly while sleeping - Sleepwalking/ talking: doing normal activities while sleeping; talking can occur in any stage; walking occurs in NREM-3 - Night terrors: appearing terrified, talking nonsense, sitting up, or walking around during NREM-3 sleep; NOT nightmares Hypnagogic sensation: ex: jumping up suddenly from bed thinking you are falling down the stairs 8/10 dreams are at least one negative event or emotion 1/10 men and 1/20 women had sexual content dreams Dream’s story line incorporate traces of previous days: - Suffering trauma = mostly nightmares - Musicians report twice as many dreams of music - Studies have found blind people dreaming about nonvisual senses Sensory stimuli: may be instantly and ingeniously woven into the dream story; ex: odor or ring Dement & Wolpert (1958): classic experiment resulted in spraying dreamers with cold water which the majority reported having a dream with water Why we dream: ● To satisfy our own wishes - Manifest content: the apparent and remembered story line - Latent content: unconscious drives and wishes ● To file away memories: info.-processing perspective proposes dreams may help sift, sort, and fix the experiences in our memory ● To develop and preserve neural pathways: provides sleep brain with periodic stimulation ● To make sense of neural static: activation-synthesis theory - dreams are the brain’s attempt to synthesize random neural activity ● To reflect cognitive development: part of brain maturation and cognitive development REM rebound: tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation; finally allowed to sleep undisturbed Dream Theories: - Freud’s wish-fulfillment: expresses otherwise unacceptable feelings - Information-processing: help sort out the day’s events and consolidate our memories - Physiological function: may help develop and preserve neural pathways - Activation-synthesis: random visual memories = stories - Cognitive development: reflects level of cognitive development The sleep cycle repeats itself about every 90 minutes for young adults. By morning, about 100 minutes have been spent in REM sleep. Manifest content: the elements of a dream that are consciously experienced and remembered by the driver

Activation-synthesis: the limbic system as well as the brains visual and auditory centers are activated - dreaming is our subjective awareness of the brain's internally generated signals that occur repeatedly throughout the process of a night's sleep Module 9: Drugs and Consciousness Psychoactive drugs: chemicals that change perceptions and moods Substance use disorder: a disorder characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk - Severity varies from mild (2-3) - moderate (4-5) - severe (6+) A drug’s overall effect depends on: 1. Biological effects 2. User’s expectations Factors of drug use disorder: 1. Diminished Control: use more substance than intended 2. Diminished Social Functioning: disrupts work, school, etc. 3. Hazardous Use: continues despite use 4. Drug Action: experiences tolerance/ withdrawal Tolerance: brain chemistry tries adapting to offset the drug effect Addiction: users crave, continue to use, and struggle when attempting withdrawal 3 major categories of psychoactive drugs: 1. Depressants: drugs such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates that calm neural activity and slow body functions ❖ Alcohol: ● An equal-opportunity drug - increases helpful tendencies (awkward/ uncomfortable situations) and increases harmful tendencies ● Disinhibitor: slows brain activity that controls judgment and inhibitions ● Alcohol use disorder: marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use; can shrink the brain ● Slowed neural processing: alcohol slows sympathetic nervous system activity; it is a potent sedative ● Memory Disruption: alcohol can disrupt memory formation; impairs growth of synaptic connections; suppresses REM sleep ● Reduced Self-Awareness and Self-Control: myopia - focused attention on an arousing situation and distracting it from normal inhibitions and future consequences ● Expectancy Effects: solitary drinking - does not boost mood; alcohol effect lies in the powerful sex organ, the mind ❖ Barbiturates ● Aka tranquilizers: depress nervous system activity

● Ex: Nembutal, seconal, amytal - induce sleep or reduce anxiety ❖ Opiates ● Depress neural functioning; relieves pain and anxiety ● Include heroin and narcotics: codeine, morphine, and methadone (substitute of heroin) ● Effects: pupils narrow, breathing slows, and slowness sets in; craving, can build a tolerance, and discomfort of withdrawal ● Overuse = stopped production of endorphins 2. Stimulants: excites neural activity and speeds body functions ● Pupils dilate, heart/breathing increases, and blood sugar levels rise = loss appetite ● Energy and self-confidence rises ● Ex: caffeine, nicotine, cocaine ecstasy ● Use to feel alert, lose weight, boost mood, or athletic performance ❖ Nicotine ● A stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco ● In 7 seconds, nicotine will signal the central nervous system to release neurotransmitters ● Epinephrine and norepinephrine: diminish appetite and boost alertness and mental efficiency ● Dopamine and opioids: temporarily calm anxiety and reduce sensitivity to pain ❖ Cocaine ● A powerful and addictive stimulant derived from the coca plant ● Snorted, injected, or smoked ● Cycle: enters bloodstream quick, producing euphoria that depletes the brain’s supply of neurotransmitters, a crash of depression hits as effect wears off, cravings for more follow within hours to days ● Leads to emotional disturbances, suspiciousness, convulsions, cardiac arrest, or respiratory failure ❖ Methamphetamine ● Stimulates the central nervous system - enhances energy and mood ● Amphetamines: stimulate neural activity; parent drug for meth ❖ Ecstasy: street name MDMA ● A stimulant and mild hallucinogen ● Effect: releases stored serotonin and blocks its reuptake; kicks in after a half hour ● Experience high energy, emotional elevation, and connectedness ● Disadvantages: dehydrates, damaged serotonin, suppresses immune system

● Effects: sweat profusely, drinking large amounts of water, hugging others 3. Hallucinogens: distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input ● Weed: a natural substance; a mild hallucinogen ● Cycle: begin experience simple geometric forms, then start to see more meaningful images, and, at the peak, people feel separated from their body and experience dreamlike scenes ● Experience bright lights, replay of old memories, and out-of-body sensations ● Patricia Churchland: experiences represent “neural funny business” ❖ LSD aka acid ● Emotions vary from euphoria to detachment to panic ● Albert Hofmann saw a childhood mystical experience - fantastic pictures, shapes, colors ❖ Marijuana ● Contains THC ● Amplifies sensitivity to colors, sounds, tastes, and smells; relaxes, disinhibits, and produces a high ● Impair safe operations of driving ● Linger in the body for more than a week ● U.S. National Academies report: alleviates chronic pain/ chemotherapy nausea, not associated with tobacco cancers, increased risk of accidents, and impaired attention ● Intensifies feelings (depression, addiction, etc.) All three do their work at the brain’s synapses, stimulating, inhibiting, or mimicking the activity of the brain’s own chemical messengers, the neurotransmitters Biological influences on drugs: ● Genetic predispositions ● Variations in neurotransmitter systems Psychological influences on drugs: ● Lacking sense of purpose ● Significant stress ● Psychological disorders (depression) Social-cultural influences on drugs: ● Difficult environment ● Cultural acceptance of drug use ● Negative peer influence

All contribute to disordered drug use Mindfulness: being aware moment-to-moment of your own subjective conscious experience from a first person perspective 15% of people recall near-death experiences...