Linguistica Inglese 2 PDF

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LINGUISTICA INGLESE 2 2/10/19 Enhance: highlight, increase. Fondamental concepts: a language is made of:   

lexis, structures, sounds.

The language is a complex unit. They cannot be considered as self-contained blox. The first two items are usually fused in what some linguistics call lexical grammar. It puts togethere this two items and also consider the role of pronunciation in combinational word. A language is not made of self-contained aspects. All these aspects si incastrano with the others. We cannot separate these aspects. Other aspects of language. When do we speak of a language? 

 

Dialect: in italy we usally origin variety linked to the geography of the person. The distinction of dialects is finer. There are geographical dialects called also diatopic dialects, social dialect called also diastratic dialect which is something important in the U.K. RP is a social dialect because is spoken by the elite. The we have historical dialect called also diacronic dialect. 1. Acrolect, 2. Basilect. is a sociolistic dyagram showing the top of the pyramid and the bottom of the pyramid. Acrolet is called by a largest group of people, on the other side basilect is called by a smallest group of people. Number of speakers and the dialect spoken. There is also personal dialect called idiolect. Each dialect si comprehensible with another one. As much you.. much difficoult is to understand. The dialect spoken in England in 1300 is incomprehensible for people speaking nowadays english. Variety: is American english a variety? Yes it is. Standard: it means accepted by a community, regular. Is a very important issue you have to decide what type of english can be accepted. Is codified.

Weinreich said about languages that a language is a dialect with an army and navy. What mix the dialect? The language. Any dialect can become a language. What does this depend on? On power for example religious or economic power. Nowadays british is getting less and less important while American english is becoming more and more important because of power. This is different for italian because italian fiorentino became the standard for Italian for cultural reason and not for others reasons. A standard is a variety of languages that is used by governements, in the media, schools and for international communications. There are different standard varieties of English in the world, such as North American English, Australian English and Indian English. Although these standard varieties different in items of their pronunciacion, there are few differences in grammar between them. In contrast, there are non standard forms of a language that are used, for example, in different regional dialects and these non standard varieties are different from each other.

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3/10/19 One of the different dialects was diacronic dialects and we said that speaker are able to understand other english speaker because there are a lot of dialects. The immigrants coming from the northen part of europe occupied some parts of england in the fifth century and they spoke different dialects which were mutual understable. The only one who became … was west saxon. Because it was the only one to have the power to produce a literarture which is worth of his name. Wessex became the most important kingdom of the old english period and in had cultural and military power. Nowadays when we describe old english we talk about the fifth, sixth, tenth century and we talk about west saxon english. From the 11 century there was a mixture of different languages with latin. The nobility had french. The majority of the population spoke different english dialects. It was only in the 15 century that one of these dialects emerged for the written english. So, people started to use one way to write which was the paradise of good english. This is called the chancery standard which produced the burocratic documents in english. They used it just for writing. It is from this standard that what we call english emerged. Esempio Gazzetta ufficiale. Late modern english has recognized standard in RP (the one used in the media, dictionaries ecc..). nowadays the standard for british english is more or less RP but is consider that just 3% speak RP as the native dialect. Most people who use RP are not native but they learn it. RP is the acrolet. Not even the queen speaks real RP. She gets more democratic and get more a mid way pronunciacion. There has been a movement from the top. In real life people who speak RP are not even BBC speakers. In 1960 if you wanted to became a speaker you had to speak RP. Nowadays there are differences and RP is no longer a srticht requier. What happens if we speak of present day as standard? Does it exist? Nobody is sure that a standard present day exist. Because there are many varieties and each one has a different standard. And also in the future we do not know.    

OE  WEST SAXON ME  CHANCERY STANDARD LATEMOD ENGLISH  RP FUTURE DAYS ENGLISH ?????

9/10/19 Language is made by structure, lexis or vocabulary and pronunciacion. These elements are not separated. Language is a combination of all these elements. They make a system. All these cannot be divided that’s why structures and vocabulary are nowadays considered as a unit. Pronunciacion also depens on these elements and the three together form a language wich is a system. A language is a dialect with the combination of these elements in which power determ how the all possible dialects emerge from the dialect. Structure are grammar and sintact. There are three basic words, terms we use in order to speak about vocaboulary: 



Morph: is the phonetic representation of a morpheme, how the morpheme is said. Ex: cats -s morpheme is pronunced /s/, dogs -s morpheme is pronunced /z/, house -s morpheme is pronunced /iz/ Morpheme: is the smallest meaningful unit which cannot be further divided or analized. Ex: unthinkable= un-think-able (there are three morpheme), books= book-s. 1. Free morpheme: is one that can stand alone with the specific meaning. Ex: book, table, stand, bag (those word can stand alone) etc.. 2



2. Bound morpheme: is one that can not be stand alone with the meaning. It always added to one or more morphemes to form a meaningful word. Ex: replay (play has an indipendent meaning but re doesn’t have a singular meaning), cheaply (cheap can stand alone but ly cannot stand alone), unable (un cannot stand alone but able can stand alone), shorten (short can stand alone but en cannot stand alone) etc.. Allomorph: are different forms of the same morpheme, or basic unit of meaning. There can be different pronunciations or different spellings.

The free morphemes can be divided in two types: 



Lexical morpheme: are morphemes that carry the main messages we convey. These can be ordinary noun, verbs, adverb, adjective. These morphemes are open class because this class can be added to. So new nouns, new verbs. I continuosly create them. In recent years a lot of world entered in the vocabulary. So old dictionaries are no longer useful because a lot of new words entered. These morphemes can have the most different origens like they can be German words or like the word sushi. Example: mis-understand-ing. These single morphemes can also called roots or base. If we take the route understand we see that it is a verb, if we put mis, we do not change the grammatical class. Prefixes don’t change the grammatical class because are class-preserved. But if i also put the suffix i can change the word class. In this case misunderstanding, misunderstanding it is a noun. Functional morpheme: acts as a functional word in a language. Mostly conjunctions, preposition, articles and pronouns. Ex: and, that. If, when. Close class of words because prepositional phrases, conjuntion and pronuns are not often added at the language. Most preposition have Germanic origens.

The bound morphemes can be divided in two types:  

Derivational morphemes: they can form derivates like happy—unhappy. Semantic changes. Inflectional morphemes: they determs morphological changes like book----books (la s è un inflectional morpheme). In english are have the ‘s’ plural, the ‘ed’, the ‘s’ third person, ‘ing’, ‘er’, ‘est’. English is poor in inflectional morphemes.

Bound morphemes mostly refer to morphemes that can occur as affixes. Two types of affixes:  

Prefixes (x-r): ex: dis-, un-, pre-, trans-, bi-. Is put before a bound morpheme. Suffixes (y-r): ex: -ly, -ness, -ish, -ity, -er, -en. Is put after a bound morpheme.

Main difference between prefixes and suffixes: Prefixes are usually class preserved so they do not change the class of the word. Suffixes often change the word class for example simply (the adjective simple become an adverb simply), whiteness, boyish, greener. Derivational morphemes: are used to create new words with new meanings. Ex:   

Noun + derivational morpheme  adj ex boyish. Verb + derivational morpheme  noun ex clearance. Adjective + derivational morpheme  adverb ex exactly

Prefixes modify the class of the word:  

be + noun/adjective  to be friend em/en  to empower, (dare potere a) to enrich

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Inflectional morphemes: change the form but not the word class or the central meaning of the word.   

Cat vs cats  singular vs plural Collects vs collected  present vs past Loud vs louder  positive vs comparative

Allomorph: are variation of morphemes. It is a different realization of a morpheme. They are different form of the same morpheme. Different morphs on the same morpheme. These can be different pronucniacions or different spellings. The plural morphemes in english, usually written as ‘S’ has at least 3 allomorphs:   

S: as in judges /yudgis/ Z: as in dogs /dogz/ Iz: as in boxes /boksiz/ that is a matter of phonology the fact that we put ‘ES’ and not ‘S’

These three allomorphes are the same morpheme. The same happens for the past morpheme ED which has 3 allomorphs:   

D: as in arrived  the sound that precede D is voiced T: as in stopped  the sound that precede D is voiceless. Why do we have 2 p? because the vouel sound is short and in order to keep it short we put a double consonant. Id: as in buzzed  buzid

There are four types of allomorph:    

Additive allomorph Suppletive allomorph Replacive allomorph Zero allomorph: zero in linguistic is indicated with the simble O with / inside. Zero allomorph is the term given to the unit involved when a morpheme change status form one type of morpheme to another without any condition or substraction of its parts. Ex: 1. Sheep (singular) + zero allomorph  sheep (plural) 2. Lawyer (singular) + zero allomorph  lawyer (plural)

Morpheme definicion oxford dictionary: it is a borrowing from Greek combined with an english element. In linguistic it is a grammatical element such as prefix, sufix, preposition, conjuction, or stress pattern considered in terms of its functional relations in a linguistic system. This is the rare sense. A minimal and indivisible morphological unit that cannot be analysed into smaller units. This is the usuale sense. 16/10/19 Word-formation: we say ed that the study of the combinational lexical morphemes is called derivational morphology. What is word-formation? is that from a noun you obtain an adjective like hope, hopeful. This is one type of word-formation. Word formation is the process of creating new words by means of existing elements and according to the patterns and rules of a given language. In the case of misunderstanding, mis i sia prefix, understand is a verb and ing is the suffix. Is the result of the combination of elements already existing in the language in order to form another word. This process is called derivation. Free morpheme and bound morpheme. Then we have compounding which is the combination of two or more free morphemes. For example, te word schoolbag or breakfast. Then we have convertion which is impossible in italian. It is also called zero morphemes and it is the change of a grammatical class without using any derivational morpheme. For example, the word call we do not need a derivational morpheme to transform a verb into a noun. We have for example film, to film without any differences in morphology. Then we have quantitative changes 4

indicates those changes that consists on reduction of word for example with acronims like Nato, or with blendings which is breakfast plus lunch becomes brunch. DERIVATIONAL derivational is a word-formation strategy in which the word is formed by adding a derivational morpheme (usually suffix or prefix) to the root.  

Suffixation: is a kind of word-formation when a new word is formed by adding a suffix to the root. Prefixation: is a kind of word-formation when a new word is formed by adding a prefix to the root.

Suffixation: Let’s go through the noun-forming suffixes. 



         

-age: it is a noun form suffix that we found for example s marriage, mileage. Then we have -ance/ence that we have in predominance, assistance, corrispondence. Them we have -dom that indicates the conditional belonging to someone or something that we have in freedom, kingdom. -ee that we have in employee, referee. Then we have -eer/-er that is used to create nomina agentis so noun that denote someone or something that perfomer an action that we have in profiteer, engenieer. This suffix can be applied also so object that performes an action for example rubber. Then we have -ess that we have in manageress, heiress, actress. -ist that we have in economist. -hood that we have in childhood. -ing that we have in building, meaning. -ion/sion/tion/ition/ation that we have television, production, conclusion, realisation. -ism that we have in consumerism, perfectionism. -ment that we have in agreement, investment. -ness that we have in effectivness. -ship that we have in relationship, ownership. -ty/-ity that we have in prosperity, activity. -ure/-ture that we have in procedure, expenditure.

Now let’s see adjective-forming suffixes:              

-able/-ible that we have in manageable, permissable. -al/-tal/-ial/-tial that we have in economical, statistical. -ant/-ent that we have in redundant, dependent. -ary that we have in monetary. -ate/-ete that we have in accurate, complete. -ful that we have in dutiful, powerful. -ish that we have in snobbish, reddish. -ive that we have in effective, extensive. -less that we have in effortless, powerless. -like that we have in lifelike. -ly that we have in costly, orderly. -ous/-ious that we have in ambiguous, nutrious. -some that we have in troublesome, worrisome. -y that we have in sexy, worthy.

Now let’s see verb-form suffixes: 

-en that we have in brighten, moisten. 5

 

-ify/-fy that we have in intensify, qualify. -ize (american english) /-ise (british english) that we have in rationalize, advertise.

Now let’s see adverb forming suffixes:   

-ly that we have in perfectly. -ward (for adverbs and adjectives) /-wards (for adverbs) that we have in winwards, backward. -wise that indicates the relation with something that we have in percentage-wise, vote-wise.

Prefixation: Prefixes modify the lexical meaning of the root; therefore the simple word and its prefixed derivate usually belong to the same part of speech. The group class-changing prefixes is rather small, example:  

Be- that we have in befriend, belittle. De- that we have in defronst, descale (squamare).

There are negative prefixes which give negative, reverse or opposite meaning:      

A- that we have in apolitical, asexual. De- that we have in destabilise, declassify. Dis- that we have in disenfranchise. Non- that we have in non-economic, non-profit. Un- that we have in unacceptable. Il- that we have in illegal, im- that we have in impercepible, in- that we have in inadequade, ir- that we have in irresponsible. (those are the same prefixes that for the phonology changes)

Then we have non-negative prefixes: 







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Degree, measures or size: 1. Hyper- that we have in hypercrative 2. Over- that we have in overstimate 3. Semi- that we have in semiskilled 4. Super- that we have in supercharged 5. Ultra- that we have in ultra-secret Repetition or possibility: 1. Em- before p, b, m 2. En- before Time, place, order, relation: 1. Ex- that we have in ex-employer, ex-tenant 2. Inter- that we have in inter-office, inter-government 3. Post- that we have in post-budge 4. Pre- that we have in pre-delivery, pre-budget Number and numeral relation: 1. Multi- that we have in multi-media 2. Bi- that we have in bilingual 3. Uni- that we have in unisex Attitude, counteraction: 1. Anti- that we have in antiestablishment 2. Auto- that we have in autodial 3. Counter- that we have in contercharge 4. Pro6

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Pejoration: 1. Mis- that we have in miscalculation, mismanage 2. Pseudo- that we have in pseudo-creativity, pseudo-democratic

COMPOUNDING In italian we have for example asciugacapelli. In english any type of free morpheme can be joint to other free morpheme in order to form a compound. This is another productive word formation. We do not use bound morpheme but just free morpheme. Example: blackbird combines the adjective black and the noun bird. This compound means merlo. Compounds are classify into 2 groups: 



  

Endocentric compounds: the two constituent elements are clearly the determinant (the first part) and determinatum (the second part) for example: ashtray (posacenere), mousetrap, stepladder (scala a gradini), blackbird. The meaning is usually transparent but not usually because if we have greenhouse it is a serra. Exocentric compounds: the determinatum is not expressed. For example, bluecollar and whitecollar. Those words mean workers that work in factories and use to wear dark clothes, and workers who work in officies and wear bright colours. Ryhme-motivated that we have for example in willy-nilly (volente nolente) Pseudo-compounds that we have for example in mayday (please help), hamburger (comes from the city Hamburg). That looks like compound but are not compounds. Semiaffixes that we have for example in kissproof, chairmain, yes-man.

In a compound the head supplies the category (noun) and basic meaning (bird-ness) for the whole compound. Compound can be used with affixation to produce larger words: 

For the verb sleepwalk we can get the noun sleepwalker (meaning someone who walks and sleeps at the same time)

Examples of way to write compounds: 

 

Open compounds: written with a blank space between the two words ex: snail mail which means slow mail. Ex: junk food which means unhealthy food. It is the opposite of email. (nuovi compounds) Solid compounds: ex: shareholder which means azionista (antichi compounds) Hyphonetic compounds: ex: user-friendly which means not difficult. Two words which are linked by an hyphon. (ne antichi ne vecchi, una via di mezzo)

CONVERSION Is the process of converting words from one part of speech to another without adding any derivate element is called conversion or zero morpheme derivation? In english every word class can be transformed into another word class. For example: in italian the use the verb taggare, the english verb is to tag, the english noun is tag. In english we can pass to verb to noun and viceversa without adding anything. But in italian we need a derivative suffix. We have to add -are. In english this addiciton of a further element is not necessary. We can classify the product of conversion:  

Verbs that we have in to nurse, to hand, to e-mail, to hammer, to finger (to touch with a finger), to hammer, to empty, t...