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BLBK061-Tamime October 8, 2008 19:44 Milk Processing and Quality Management Milk Processing and Quality Management Edited by Adnan Y. Tamime © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN: 978-1-405-14530-5 i BLBK061-Tamime October 8, 2008 19:44 Other books in the Society of Dairy Technology series: Probiot...

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Milk Processing and Quality Management

Milk Processing and Quality Management Edited by Adnan Y. Tamime © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN: 978-1-405-14530-5

Other books in the Society of Dairy Technology series: Probiotic Dairy Products (ISBN 978-1-4051-2124-8) Fermented Milks (ISBN 978-0632-06458-8) Brined Cheeses (ISBN 978-1-4051-2460-7) Structure of Dairy Products (ISBN 978-1-4051-2975-6) Dairy Powders and Concentrated Milk Products (ISBN 978-1-4051-5764-3) Cleaning-in-Place: Dairy, Food and Beverage Operations (ISBN 978-1-4051-5503-8)

Milk Processing and Quality Management Edited by

Dr Adnan Y. Tamime Dairy Science and Technology Consultant Ayr, UK

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

This edition first published 2009  C 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing programme has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell. Registered office John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom Editorial offices 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, United Kingdom 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell. The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The Publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Milk processing and quality management / edited by Adnan Y. Tamime. p. cm. – (Society of Dairy Technology series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4051-4530-5 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Dairy processing–Quality control. I. Tamime, A. Y. SF250.5.M56 2008 637′ .1–dc22 2008026000 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. R Set in 10/12.5pt Times New Roman by Aptara Inc., New Delhi, India Printed in Singapore by Utopia Press Pte Ltd

1 2009

Contents

Preface to Technical Series Preface Contributors 1 On-Farm Hygienic Milk Production M.M.M. VISSERS AND F. DRIEHUIS 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Sources of microbial contamination of bulk tank milk 1.2.1 Background 1.2.2 Mastitis 1.2.3 Environment 1.2.4 Milking equipment 1.2.5 Microbial growth during milk storage 1.3 Control of microbial contamination of bulk tank milk 1.3.1 Good farming practice 1.3.2 Animal health management 1.3.3 Control of feed 1.3.4 Facility hygiene 1.3.5 Milking operations 1.3.6 Milking machine design and operations 1.3.7 Bulk tank design and operations 1.3.8 Identification of effective control measures 1.4 Future developments in handling of the milk on the farm 1.4.1 Concentration of milk 1.4.2 Heat treatment of the milk 1.4.3 In/online monitoring of bulk tank milk quality 1.5 Conclusions References 2 Properties and Constituents of Cow’s Milk T. HUPPERTZ AND A.L. KELLY 2.1 2.2 2.3

Introduction Milk composition Milk constituents

xiii xiv xv 1 1 2 2 3 5 7 8 8 8 9 9 11 12 13 14 14 15 15 16 16 16 17 23 23 24 25

vi

Contents

2.4

2.5

2.6 2.7

2.3.1 Lactose 2.3.2 Milk salts 2.3.3 Lipids 2.3.4 Proteins 2.3.5 Indigenous milk enzymes Heat-induced changes in physicochemical properties of milk 2.4.1 pH 2.4.2 Buffering capacity 2.4.3 Creaming Heat-induced changes in processing characteristics of milk 2.5.1 Rennet-induced coagulation 2.5.2 Acid-induced coagulation 2.5.3 Heat-induced coagulation Relationship between the quality of raw milk and that of products Conclusions References

3 Microbiology of Raw and Market Milks V. TOUCH AND H.C. DEETH 3.1 3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5 3.6

3.7

3.8

Introduction Microflora of raw milk 3.2.1 Spoilage organisms 3.2.2 Pathogenic organisms Microflora of pasteurised milk 3.3.1 Spoilage organisms 3.3.2 Pathogenic organisms Microflora of UHT milk 3.4.1 Heat-resistant spore-formers 3.4.2 Post-sterilisation contaminants Microflora of ESL milk Sources of contamination 3.6.1 Raw milk 3.6.2 Pasteurised milk 3.6.3 UHT milk Measures to reduce bacterial contamination of raw and market milks 3.7.1 Cleaning and sanitation 3.7.2 Cooling the milk during storage 3.7.3 Addition of carbon dioxide 3.7.4 Applications of bio-preservatives 3.7.5 Thermal treatments 3.7.6 Non-thermal treatments 3.7.7 Multitarget attack/integrative approaches Conclusion References

25 28 29 31 36 37 37 38 39 39 39 40 40 41 43 43 48 48 48 48 50 51 51 54 55 55 56 57 58 58 60 61 61 61 62 62 62 64 65 65 65 66

Contents

4 Quality Control ´ AND I. RECIO J. BELLOQUE, R. CHICON 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4

4.5

4.6

4.7

Introduction Quality control of raw milk Quality control of processed milk Methods of analysis 4.4.1 Analysis of abnormal milk 4.4.2 Microbial analysis 4.4.3 Mastitic milk – somatic cell count (SCC) 4.4.4 Testing for residues compounds Major components analysis 4.5.1 Protein composition analysis 4.5.2 Fat composition analysis 4.5.3 Analysis of other milk components 4.5.4 Analysis of degradation products formed during milk storage 4.5.5 Evaluation of heat load Analysis of fraudulent addition of ingredients and authentication 4.6.1 Addition of water 4.6.2 Addition of whey proteins 4.6.3 Addition of non-dairy proteins 4.6.4 Addition of reconstituted milk 4.6.5 Substitution of milk from a different species of mammals 4.6.6 Substitution of milk with different feeding or geographical origin 4.6.7 Mislabelling of fortified and functional milks Conclusion Acknowledgement References Further Reading Web Pages of Interest

5 Current Legislation of Market Milks M. HICKEY 5.1 5.2

5.3

Introduction EU legislation 5.2.1 Access to EU legislation 5.2.2 Compositional requirements 5.2.3 Amendment to existing compositional requirements 5.2.4 Hygiene and food safety requirements UK legislation 5.3.1 Background 5.3.2 Present legislation on composition 5.3.3 Present legislation on hygiene 5.3.4 The Dairy UK Code of Practice for HTST pasteurisation 5.3.5 Permitted range of packaging sizes for milk in the UK

vii

72 72 72 73 74 75 75 77 78 79 82 83 83 84 84 86 86 86 89 89 90 90 90 91 92 92 99 100 101 101 102 102 102 105 105 115 115 115 116 118 118

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Contents

5.4

Irish legislation 5.4.1 Introduction 5.4.2 Present legislation on hygiene 5.4.3 Present legislation on composition 5.4.4 Range of packaging sizes for fresh drinking milk in Ireland 5.5 USA legislation 5.5.1 Background 5.5.2 Historical details 5.5.3 The Pasteurised Milk Ordinance (PMO) and the Code of Federal Regulations 5.5.4 Definitions and standards for milk in the USA 5.5.5 Sale of raw milk for direct consumption in the USA 5.6 The international perspective – Codex Alimentarius 5.6.1 What is Codex Alimentarius? 5.6.2 Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) membership and structures 5.6.3 Codex Alimentarius standards 5.6.4 Codex Alimentarius standards and milk for human consumption 5.7 Conclusions and possible future developments References

6 The Safety of Raw Liquid Milk M. O’MAHONY, S. FANNING AND P. WHYTE 6.1 6.2 6.3

Introduction Implication of milk in human disease Microbial hazards in milk 6.3.1 Salmonella species 6.3.2 Campylobacter species 6.3.3 Verocytotoxigenic Escherichia coli 6.3.4 Enterotoxigenic Staphylococcus aureus 6.3.5 Listeria monocytogenes 6.3.6 Mycobacterium bovis 6.3.7 Brucella abortus and Brucella melitensis 6.4 Chemical contaminants and residues 6.4.1 Industrially derived contaminants 6.4.2 Biologically derived contaminants 6.4.3 Pesticides and residues of plant health agrichemicals 6.4.4 Residues of animal remedies 6.5 Poorly understood and emerging hazards 6.5.1 Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) 6.5.2 Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis 6.5.3 Enterobacter sakazakii 6.5.4 Antimicrobial resistance 6.6 Risk management strategies to ensure safety of liquid milk 6.6.1 Pre-harvest risk management

119 119 119 120 120 120 120 121 122 122 124 125 125 125 126 128 132 133 139 139 139 140 140 141 141 142 143 144 145 146 146 147 147 148 149 149 150 151 152 156 156

Contents

6.7

6.6.2 Harvest phase risk management 6.6.3 Post-harvest risk management Summation References

7 Heat Treatment of Milk M.J. LEWIS AND H.C. DEETH 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6

7.7 7.8 7.9

7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13

Introduction Milk composition Reaction kinetics Principles of heat transfer Thermisation and tyndallisation Pasteurisation 7.6.1 Introduction and principles 7.6.2 Methods of pasteurisation 7.6.3 Factors affecting the quality of pasteurised milk Sterilisation – safety and spoilage considerations In-container sterilisation UHT processing 7.9.1 Introduction and principles 7.9.2 Methods of UHT processing 7.9.3 Factors affecting the quality of UHT milk 7.9.4 Heat stability, sediment formation and fouling High-temperature processing (extended shelf life) Reconstituted and recombined milk products Conclusions Appendix 7.13.1 Some heat transfer properties 7.13.2 Definitions and equations References

8 Novel Methods of Milk Processing M. VILLAMIEL, M.A.I. SCHUTYSER AND P. DE JONG 8.1 8.2

8.3

8.4

Introduction Microwaves 8.2.1 Operating principle 8.2.2 Effects on product properties 8.2.3 State of the art and opportunities High Pressure 8.3.1 Operating principle 8.3.2 Effect on product properties 8.3.3 State of the art and opportunities Pulsed electric fields 8.4.1 Operating principle

ix

156 157 158 158 168 168 169 170 170 171 171 171 174 177 180 181 183 183 185 190 193 195 197 198 199 199 199 200 205 205 205 207 207 209 209 210 210 212 213 213

x

Contents

8.5

8.6

8.7

8.8

8.9

8.4.2 Effect on product properties 8.4.3 State of the art and opportunities Ultrasound 8.5.1 Operating principle 8.5.2 Effects on product properties 8.5.3 State of the art and opportunities Microfiltration 8.6.1 Operating principle 8.6.2 Effect on product properties 8.6.3 State of the art and opportunities Innovative steam injection – a novel heating method 8.7.1 Operating principle 8.7.2 Effect on product properties 8.7.3 State of the art and opportunities Combined technologies 8.8.1 Effect on product properties 8.8.2 Preservation in the presence of antimicrobials 8.8.3 State of the art and opportunities Computer models for design and implementation of novel milk-processing methods 8.9.1 Optimisation of milk-processing methods with models 8.9.2 Availability of models References

9 Hygiene Practices in Liquid Milk Dairies A.J. VAN ASSELT AND M.C. TE GIFFEL 9.1 9.2

9.3

9.4

9.5

Introduction Principal hazards 9.2.1 Raw milk 9.2.2 Pasteurised milk 9.2.3 Sterilised milk Hygienic processing 9.3.1 General 9.3.2 Building construction 9.3.3 Zoning 9.3.4 Processing equipment 9.3.5 Cleaning 9.3.6 Packaging materials 9.3.7 Processing aids Monitoring and control 9.4.1 In-line detection of microorganisms 9.4.2 Optimisation of CIP procedures Concluding remarks References

214 215 216 216 216 217 218 219 219 220 220 221 221 222 222 224 224 225 226 226 227 228 237 237 237 237 238 240 240 240 241 241 242 243 244 244 244 245 245 246 249

Contents

10 Hazard Analysis (Appraisal) Critical Control Point (HACCP) in Milk Processing – A Practical Overview A. SAYLER 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4

10.5

10.6

10.7

10.8

10.9 10.10

Introduction General aspects of the benefits of the HACCP system HACCP definitions Implementation and maintenance of the HACCP programme 10.4.1 Commitment by management 10.4.2 Letter of endorsement of an HACCP programme Steps to HACCP implementation 10.5.1 Assemble the HACCP team 10.5.2 Describe the food and its distribution 10.5.3 Intended use and consumers of the food (see form above) 10.5.4 Develop a flow diagram that describes the process 10.5.5 Verify the flow diagram Hazard components 10.6.1 Biological hazards 10.6.2 Chemical hazards 10.6.3 Physical hazards 10.6.4 Potential hazards identified by source Prerequisite programme 10.7.1 Background 10.7.2 Prerequisite examples and forms The principles of an HACCP plan 10.8.1 Principle 1 – conduct hazard analysis 10.8.2 Principle 2 – determine CCPs 10.8.3 Principle 3 – establishments of critical limits 10.8.4 Principle 4 – establish monitoring procedures 10.8.5 Principle 5 – establish corrective actions 10.8.6 Principle 6 – establish verification procedure 10.8.7 Principle 7 – records Internal and external auditing in the HACCP process Overview and summary

11 Sensory Profiling of Market Milks ´ E. MOLINA, L. AMIGO AND A. QUIROS 11.1 11.2

Introduction Sensory properties of market milks 11.2.1 Sensory evaluation of milk 11.2.2 Sensory attributes of flavour defects 11.2.3 Other factors influencing the sensory properties 11.3 Different types of market milks 11.3.1 Raw and heat processed milk 11.3.2 Whole and fat-reduced milk

xi

253 253 254 255 257 259 259 260 260 262 263 263 263 263 264 266 267 267 269 269 277 277 277 283 283 284 285 287 289 291 293 294 294 295 295 297 303 305 306 306

xii

Contents

11.3.3 Enriched and modified milks 11.3.4 Other types of milks 11.4 Conclusion References Index

309 311 312 313 317

Preface to Technical Series

For more than 60 years, the Society of Dairy Technology (SDT) has sought to provide education and training in the dairy field, disseminating knowledge and fostering personal development through symposia, conferences, residential courses, publications, and its journal, the International Journal of Dairy Technology (previously known as the Journal of the Society of Dairy Technology). In recent years, there have been significant advances in our understanding of milk systems, probably the most complex natural food available to man. Improvements in process technology have been accompanied by massive changes in the scale of many milk/dairyprocessing operations, and the manufacture of a wide range of dairy and other related products. The Society has now embarked on a project with Blackwell Publishing to produce a Technical Series of dairy-related books to provide an invaluable source of information for practicing dairy scientists and technologists, covering the range from small enterprises to modern large-scale operation. This fifth volume in the series, on Milk Processing and Quality Management under the editorship of Dr Adnan Y. Tamime, provides timely and comprehensive guidance on the processing of liquid milks. The economic production of liquid milk is of vital importance to the dairy industry, for example in the UK half of the ex-farm milk is processed for the liquid milk market, almost 90% being pasteurised while the remainder is more severely heat treated to provide long-life products. Attention to detail is essential if the consumer is to be provided with a safe product that meets taste and shelf life expectations. Andrew Wilbey Chairman of the Publications Committee, SDT

Preface

Given the recent developments in dairy technology, it has become apparent that revision of some of the SDT publications (e.g. Pasteurisation Manual) is overdue. Although there have been some technical developments (i.e. with the exception of automation) in pasteurisation of liquid milk over the past couple decades, consumption of liquid milk is rather high worldwide. It is important to note that in certain parts of Europe and majority of developing countries, sterilised, extended shelf life (ESL) and ultra-heat treatment (UHT) of liquid milk products are widely produced, and this sector of the dairy industry is highly profitable and represents a large proportion (e.g. >50%) of the processed milk in any dairying country. Milks Processing and Quality Management is another book proposed within the Technical Series of The Society of Dairy Technology (SDT). Numerous scientific data are available in journals and books that have been published since the early 1990s, and the primary aim of this text is to detail the manufacturing methods (i.e. pasteurisation, sterilisation, ESL and UHT), scientific aspects, quality control (i.e. hygiene and analytical methods), safety of raw milk consumption and properties of all these liquid milk products in one publication. The authors, who are all specialists in these products, have been chosen from around the world. There is no doubt that the book will have an international recognition by dairy scientists, students, researchers and dairy operatives, and will become an important component of the Technical Series promoted by the Society of Dairy Technology. Adnan Y. Tamime

Contributors

Editor Dr Adnan Y. Tamime Dairy Science & Technology Consultant 24 Queens Terrace Ayr KA7 1DX Scotland UK Tel: +44 (0)1292 265498 Fax: +44 (0)1292 265498 Mobile: +44 (0)7980 278950 E-mail: [email protected]

Contributors Dr Lourdes Amigo Instituto de Fermentaciones Industriales (CSIC) Juan de la Cierva 3 28006 Madrid Spain Tel: +34-91-5622900 Ext. 220 Fax: +34-91-5644853 E-mail: [email protected] Mr Arjan J. van Asselt Project Manager Process Hygiena & Efficiency NIZO Food Research B.V. P.O. Box 20 6710 BA Ede The Netherlands Tel: +31 318 659 646 Fax: +31 318 650 400 E-mail: [email protected]

Dr Josefina Belloque Instituto de Fermentaciones Industriales (CSIC) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cient´ıficas Juan de la Cierva 3 28006 Madrid Spain Tel: +34 91 5622900 Fax: +34 91 5644853 E-mail: [email protected] Dr Rosa Chic´on Instituto de Fermentaciones Industriales (CSIC) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cient´ıficas Juan de la Cierva 3 28006 Madrid Spain

xvi

Contributors

Tel: +34 91 5622900 Fax: +34 91 5644853 E-mail: [email protected]

Tel: +353 (0)63 89392 Mobile: +353 (0)87 2385653 E-mail: [email protected]

Dr H.C. Deeth School Land, Crop and Food Sciences The University of Queensland Brisbane 4072 Australia Tel: +61 (0)7 3347 9191 Fax: +61 (0)7 3365 1177 E-mail: [email protected]

Dr Thom Huppertz NIZO food research P.O. Box 2...