Phonetics Quiz 1 - review notes erickson PDF

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Chapter 1: Introduction What is Phonetics? -The science that studies speech sounds -Specifically it examines -Production- what structures are involved and what movements are required -Perception and Acoustics -Classification -Variation- within and across languages Why Phonetic Transcription? -Accurate and reliable representation for what speakers produce -Reading transcripts enables an understanding of pronunciation differing across speakers of the same language Why Not Regular Spelling? -Regular spelling- orthography 1. Not enough letters for all the sounds -The Roman alphabet has 26 letters -It was intended for use with Latin and works well with it -English actually has over 40 different speech sounds 2. English has many words that are spelled the same but pronounced differently -read/read live/live 3. Even the same words are pronounced differently be different speakers -calm, blessed, caught, route 4. Some sounds are represented by more than one letter or letter combination 5. English also has many words that are spelled differently but sound the same -red/read, right/write 6. Some letters are included in some words that don’t represent anything -Psalm, debt, doubt, pine 7. English borrows many words from other languages that contain non-English sounds 8. Pronunciation changes over time and spelling usually doesn’t change as quickly -USING ORTHOGRAPHY TO COMMUNICATE ABOUT SPEECH SOUND PRODUCTION IS VERY INADEQUATE Phonetic Transcription- the process of writing down the sounds someone said -Transcriber must have adequate hearing -Transcriber has to set aside their own pronunciations -Transcriber needs a system of symbols that can be relied upon -Best if there is a 1:1 correspondence between sound and symbol International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) -Developed by the International Phonetic Association -Gets around problems with orthography -Each symbol only represents one sound

-Shriberg and Kent’s modification of IPA -Focuses on English speech sounds only -Designed to deal with modifications by speakers who have problems with speech sound production -Commonly used by SLPS Transcription Dimensions 1. Linguistic Complexity- speakers produce speech sounds at different levels of complexity 1. Isolation- the sound by itself 2. Within a word 3. Within a sentence 4. In continuous speech -The task of perceiving what the speaker did gets more difficult as the linguistic complexity increases 2. Response Complexity- we listen for different things at different times -Our task may be to focus on 1. A single “target sound” 2. All the sounds in a single “target word” 3. All the sounds in all the words -A single target is much easier to focus on than several targets 3. System Complexity- the way we decide what the speaker did can vary considerably -At least three systems are commonly used 1. Two-way scoring- we make a simple yes or no decision a. Was the target correct or incorrect b. May not be enough in many clinical situations c. Doesn’t help us decide how to correct the problem 2. Five-way scoring a. The sound was correct b. The “target” sound was left out (omission) c. Some other sound was used in place of the target (substitution) d. The sound closely resembled the target but “wasn’t quite right” (distortion) e. An unintended sound is inserted (addition) 3. Phonetic Transcription- we list the target sounds as we perceive them to be -Use broad or narrow (close) transcription -Transcription is by far the most demanding system -Each target we hear has to be placed into one of many possible categories

Chapter 2.A: Linguistics Linguistics -The scientific study of natural/human language -What is a language? -A method of human communication, which assumes the use of words in a structured and conventional way -Can be expressed by: speech, written symbols, sign -A set of rules for communication shared within a linguistic/speech community -Speech Community- those who live near each other and speak the same language -Share the knowledge of -What words stand for -How words are pronounced -How new words are created -How sentences are formed -Some speech communities are limited to speakers in the same dialect or may have more than one dialect -Speech -One mode for expressing language -A physical act with physical consequences -Can be described in two ways 1. A pattern of movements by the organs of speech 2. A pattern of vibrations created in the air -The physical act of speaking is meaningless unless it involves 1. A reason to communicate 2. A listener who can detect the pattern of vibration and interpret it -If the speaker and listener belong to the same speech community the message should be understood (there is mutual “intelligibility”) Language vs. Dialect -Dialect- a variety of a language -Speakers of different dialects generally can understand each other fairly well -Speakers of some dialects may have some difficulty understanding each other -Everyone has a dialect -Differ in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar -Most differences seen in choice of words or sounds -ex. English dialects differ mostly on vowels -Regional Dialects- usually defined by geography// sometimes called “standard” dialects -Social Dialects- usually defined by social class or ethnic group -Dialects that have been traditionally viewed as less valued ones have been called “non-standard” dialects  BAD -Idiolects- individual unique form of language

-Linguistic description of a dialect can be described as: 1. Descriptive: linguistics describe the attributes of dialects as currently spoken the preferred method today 2. Prescriptive: linguistics develop a set of rules for a dialect and prescribe that people use them -Language vs. Dialect is dependent on a matter of the degree of difference Units of Linguistic Analysis -Morpheme- smallest unit of meaning in a language -Morphology- study of morphemes -Every word has at least 1 morpheme -Morpheme does not indicate word “-s” plural is a morpheme -Always count past tense and plurality when counting morphemes -In English morphemes are used as: prefixes, suffixes, verb endings -Morphemic Transcription- written record of the morphemes of an utterance Phonemes -Speech segments that help distinguish among morphemes within a language -They are a mental representation of the difference in morphemes -Transcribed with IPA, usually inside virgules // -Ex. Fish, Dish, Wish -Single morpheme words that differ only on first segment -/f/ /d/ /w/- create distinctions among morphemes -That means they are separate phonemes -A morpheme must consist of one or more phonemes -Minimal Contrast- a situation where 2 words differ by only one sound -the change in sound must also cause a linguistic change -If the sound changed causes a linguistic change, we say it is phonemic -2 sounds might cause a linguistic (phonemic) change in one language but not in another -Ex. aspirated/unaspirated /p/ in English (non-phonemic) vs. Hindi (phonemic) -Minimal Pair- the 2 words in a minimal contrast -Being in minimal contrast makes them a minimal pair -If two words sound the same (homophones) they are NOT in minimal pair -The standard by which we identify phonemes -Sounds must occur in the same place to create the contrast -The two sounds are said to be in “contrastive variation” -If the two sounds never occur in the same place they are said to be in complimentary distribution -Since they can never create a contrast they cant be considered separate phonemes using that definition

-Graphemes are not phonemes -Graphemes are spelling symbols, the actual letters used to make a word -Phonology- the study of rules systems of languages -Structure and function of sounds in a language -Knowing which sounds are phonemes and which are allophones is one aspect of knowing the “sound system” -Phonetics- study of the individual speech sounds in a language -Articulatory Phonetics- how sounds are produced -Acoustic Phonetics- acoustic of speech sounds Allophones -Speakers don’t always produce speech sounds the same way but the meaning of the morpheme does not change -These differences are not phonemic, and the 2 productions are not separate phonemes -If the meaning does not change by using the different productions we call them allophones—versions of a phoneme -Phonemes then are “groups of allophones” -Sometimes the different allophones of a phoneme regularly occur in the same place -They are said to be in free variation—they can be exchanged for each other at the place -Sometimes the different allophones never occur in the same place -They are said to be in complimentary distribution- they will not be exchanged for each other at that place Allophones and Phonemes -Phone- any instance of a speech sound -Whether two phones are separate phonemes or just allophones of the same phonemes depends on the language -If it changes the meaning of the word they are phonemes -If they don’t change the meaning of the word they are allophones Allomorphs -Morphemes also have different forms that are used in systematic ways -There are 2 types of morphemes 1. Regular Forms- forms that follow rules ex. Regular comparative –er, -est -Phonologically conditioned morphemes -Some regular forms have different versions and the choice of which one to use depends on the surrounding sounds -These morphemes are phonologically conditioned ex. Cat(s) vs. Dog(s) -Morphophonemic Rule- the rule that tells us which different form of the morpheme to use in which case 2. Irregular Forms- forms that do not follow rules and have to be learned -Learn by memorization -Usually learned later than regular forms

Counting Morphemes 1. To analyze formed adult usages 2. To assess language development in children Morphs- a morpheme like shape but not a necessarily a morpheme -All morphemes are morphs, but not all morphs are morphemes -A meaningless sound in a word would be a morph but not a morpheme Ex. Alcoholic—workaholic Alphabet/Grapheme/Allograph -Alphabet- set of characters used for writing a language -Alphabets in different languages -Different characters sometimes represent the same sound -Same characters sometimes represent different sounds -Allograph- different characters or combinations of characters that represent the same sound/phoneme Position and Context -The position of sounds within linguistic units can be described 3 different ways 1. Position in the word 2. Position in the syllable 3. Position of consonant relative to the vowel 1. Position in the word 1. Initial- at the beginning 2. Final- at the end 3. Medial- neither beginning nor end -These terms can be a problem when discussing consonant clusters 2. Position in syllable -Syllable-initial- also called “releasing” position -Syllable-final- also called “arresting” position 3. Position of consonant relative to the vowel -Prevocalic- occurring before the vowel -Postvocalic- occurring after a vowel -Intervocalic- occurring between 2 vowels -Geminates- when two identical sounds occur next to each other -Geminates are often not both pronounced separately, but instead may be one sound that is held a big longer -True geminates- occur in the medial position of the same word -Ex. Bookkeeper -Junctural geminates- occur in two adjacent words -Ex. Bad dog -Singleton- a consonant without any other consonant next to it -pet, shoe, produce -Cluster- two or more consonants in a sequence (sometimes called a blend) -blow, pasture, green, books -Open syllable- ends in a vowel sound

-Closed syllable- ends in a consonant sound Chapter 3 Anatomy and Physiology of Speech Basic Anatomy and Physiology of Speech -Speech is perhaps the most “gymnastic” activity we ever do -Singing is a little but more excessive -Speech involves the complex interaction of over 100 muscles -To produce speech we need: 1. Power supply- respiratory system 2. Vibrator- vocal chords in the larynx// laryngeal system 3. Resonator- vocal tract, oral cavity, articulators// supralaryngeal system

The Usual Breath Cycle 1. The diaphragm is a major player -The large muscle separating the lungs from the abdominal cavity -It contracts which causes it to flatten out -The muscles between the ribs also contracts 2. What does contraction do? -This pulls the lungs down and outward and makes the chest cavity larger 3. What does a larger chest cavity cause? -Creates a vacuum which draws air into the lungs -Air is a gas and wants to equalize pressure 4. What happens once pressure is equalized? -The diaphragm and the rib muscles relax -The abdominal muscles contract slightly -Chest cavity reduces in size

-Increasing air pressure in the lungs relative to air pressure outside the body -Air rushes out of the lungs Breathing for Speech -All of the above steps operate during speech but there is an additional step with some differences: 1. The diaphragm and rib muscles let go gradually rather than suddenly 2. The laryngeal and supralaryngeal systems control the flow of the air as it comes out 3. Vibrations of tissue in the larynx produce a sound source 4. Constrictions in the supralaryngeal system may create sound sources 5. Shape of the supralaryngeal structures shapes the resulting sounds The Breath Cycle -Timing of the breath cycle also changes somewhat during speech -During normal breathing, inhalation and exhalation take about the same amount of time -During speech, inhalation is more rapid and exhalation is slower

Laryngeal System -Consists of the larynx -Voice box -It sits on the top of the trachea (windpipe) -Upper front edge of the larynx—adams apple ` -Women’s cartilage is not as pronounced so you can’t see the adams apple -Vocal Folds -2 flaps of muscle and tissue -Sits in the middle of the larynx -Oriented horizontally -Apart for breathing, together to close off trachea

-Begin to vibrate when pressure builds beneath them -1 of the sound sources of the speech mechanism -Glottis -Space (not a structure) between the vocal folds -Open during normal breathing -Adduction -When the voice is needed the vocal folds are brought together (adducted) -this closes the glottis -So the 2 flaps of tissue meet in the middle -As the diaphragm and rib muscles are slowly turned off… -Lung volume decreases -Air pressure beneath the vocal folds increases, eventually causing them to vibrate -The vibration creates a sound wave that travels through the supralaryngeal system and out of the body -Result= voicing -the sound source for most but not all speech sounds Functions of the Laryngeal System -Primary function- protect the lungs -Secondary function- the structures that protect the lungs can also vibrate, which allows us to produce our “voice” Generating the Voice -The vocal folds don’t vibrate like the strings of a violin, they make sound more like hands clapping -Egressive voice is generated by 1. The vocal folds being adducted (brought together) tightly 2. Air pressure builds up from below and forces the vocal folds apart 3. The sudden release of the vocal folds reduces the pressure and the vocal folds are pulled back together 4. Pressure builds up again and the cycle repeats itself (occurs many times per second) The Voice -Rate of opening and closing of the vocal folds is known as the fundamental frequency of the voice -Fundamental frequency is what we perceive as the pitch of the voice -Higher is perceived as higher pitch -Lower is perceived as lower pitch - Fundamental frequency in children is much higher than adults because the vocal folds are shorter and thinner -They open and close much faster - Fundamental frequency in most adult females is higher than in most adult males

-Typical adult males= 125 Hz -Typical adult female= 250 Hz -Typical Infant= 450 Hz -Hz= cycles per second -It is possible to manipulate the pitch of our voices -The muscles of the larynx make the vocal folds longer or shorter and/or more or less tens -Pitch changes in speech= intonation -Conveys meaning, stress, and mood -ex. When we ask questions, the pitch usually gets higher at the end -Sound produced by the vocal chords -Buzzing sound -Acoustically rich in harmonics -Not yet recognized as speech The Supralaryngeal System -The speech mechanism above the larynx -Cavities 1. Pharynx- tube above the larynx 2. Oral cavity- mouth 3. Nasal cavity- nasal passages -Process: 1. Sound passes through the pharynx 2. Then it may enter either the oral or nasal cavity or both -Serves 2 Functions 1. Can serve as a secondary sound source 2. Can serve as a resonator, which modifies the buzzing sound produced by the larynx -What emerges from the mouth is sometimes recognizable as speech -For most normal speech, the sound energy is directed out of the mouth -Called oral radiation -Sounds produced are oral sounds -Soft palate is up and sound cannot pass through the nasal passage -For some speech sounds, it is normal to have the energy go through the nose -Called nasal radiation -Sounds produced are nasal sounds -Soft palate is down and sound can pass through the nasal passage -Sometimes both oral and nasal radiation occurs -Sounds produced here are said to be nasalized (do not have one of these in English) -Nasalized sounds may or may not be normal—WHEN A VOWEL OCCURS AFTER A NASAL CONSONATE, BEFORE A NASAL CONSONATE, AND BETWEEN TWO NASAL CONSONATES THE SOFT PALATE DOES NOT HAVE TIME TO CLOSE OFF ALL THE WAY SO THERE WILL BE A NASALIZED SOUND

-Normal for some carryover of nasal radiation on oral sounds if they are next to nasal sounds -Not normal when nasal radiation occurs without nasal sounds nearby Supralaryngeal Structures -Vocal Tract- everything from the glottis up to the lips -Hard Palate- bony part of the roof of the mouth -Sometimes called the bony palate -Connects to the soft palate -Uvula- short fleshy extension of the soft palate -What you see hanging down at the back of the throat when you look in the mouth -Alveolar Ridge- bony ridge just behind the upper front teeth The Articulators -Articulation- the process of shaping of the airstream to create specific sounds of speech -Structures involved are considered the articulators -Can be… -Static- sometimes sounds are produced while the articulators assume a fixed position (also called “steady-state”) -Dynamic- sometimes the articulators are moving as the sound is being produced -The Velum (soft palate) -Velum sometimes said to include the uvula (not for our purposes here) -Normally the velum is down allowing air to flow out through the nose -it is closed during much of speech -When it is raided it helps close off the velopharyngeal port (back of the nose) -Closure of the velopharyngeal port also involves movement of the walls of the pharynx -The Jaw (mandible) -Connected to the base of the skull by the temporomandibular joint -Can move -Up and down -Side to side -Back and forth (to a limited degree) -Assists with 1. Raising and lowering of the tongue 2. Opening and closing the lips -The Tongue -Muscular organ that has no internal skeleton -Can be divided into several “functional” parts -Several different systems for dividing up the tongue -We will assume the tongue has 5 divisons -Body, tip (apex), blade, dorsum (back), root

-Tongue Body -Overall mass of the tongue -Position of the tongue body in the mouth is used to describe where the tongue is producing vowels -Tongue Tip -Involved in the production of over 50% of all speech sounds -The tongue tip is the most mobile of the articulators -Sounds produced with the tip of the tongue are sometimes called “apical” sounds -Tongue Blade -Area just behind the tip -Directly involved in only a few speech sounds but helps shape the tongue for many others -Tongue Dorsum (Back) -Used to contact or approximate the back part of the hard palate and the soft palate -Sounds produced here are called “dorsal” sounds -ALL VOWELS ARE DORSAL SOUNDS -Tongue Root -Most posterior portion of the tongue -Forms the front of the pharynx -Not the primary point of constriction for any English sounds but does help shape the vocal tract for many sounds

-Lips -Used to directly create several consonatnts -Sounds here are called “labial” sounds -May be protruded (extended) to add “lip rounding” to many vowels—makes the vocal tract longer -Lower lip usually moves more than upper -Opening and closing of the lips is often assisted by movement of the jaw -Speech and Development -The anatomical ...