Psych 1F03 Course Notes PDF

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Psych 1F03, Winter 2018, Dr. Joe Kim...

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Psych 1F03   

Phycological – What lies within a subject’s mind Biological – Focus on the physiological mechanisms that underlie thoughts and behavior, how genetic factors contribute to behavior Environmental – How social, cultural, and learning interactions can influence thought and behaviour

Reductionism – all human behavior can be reduced to the biology of the brain Habituation – Evolutionary vs developmental perspectives of psychology 

Evolutionary psychology considers a much larger time span than developmental psychology does

Social psychologists study the relationship between people

Research Methods 1 Definitions     

Anecdotal evidence – evidence gathered from others or self experience, insufficient to draw scientific conclusion Experiment – scientific tool used to measure the effect of one variable on another Independent variable – variable manipulated by the scientist Dependant variable – variable being observed by the scientist The population – General group we are trying to learn about

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The sample – The selected members of the population we collect data from Random sample – choosing a sample at random from the entire population Random assignment – Assigning subjects to either the experimental or control group at random to avoid any biases that may cause differences between the groups of subjects

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Placebo effect – An effect that occurs when an individual exhibits a response to a treatment that has no related therapeutic effect Participant bias – when a participants actions in an experiment influence the results outside of the manipulations of the experimenter Blinding – When participants do not know whether they belong to the experimental or control group, or which treatment they are receiving Experimenter bias – Actions made by the experimenter, intentionally of not, to promote the result they hope to achieve. Fixed by the experimenter not knowing who is in what group Double-blind studies – experiments in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know which group each participant belong to

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The scientific method 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Construct a theory Generate a hypothesis Choose research method Collect data Analyze data Report the findings Revise existing theories

Scientific method provides a standardized process for scientific research. The process minimizes bias, conflicts, and other problems in order to promote accurate results and scientific discourse. Experimental group – Receives a manipulation of the independent variable Control group – Not affected by the independent variable 

People should be as similar as possible, so the difference found in the dependent variable is likely caused by manipulation of the independent variable and not the difference between people

Within-subjects design – Manipulating the independent variables within each participant to minimize the effect of external variables on the dependent measure Downsides: Timely and costly. Participant may change in improvement because they have more experience Practice effect – improved performance over the course of an experiment due to becoming more experienced

Between subjects’ design – one group acts as the control group Important for the individuals in the experiment to be as similar as possible to eachother. Confounding variable – a variable other than the independent variable that has an effect on the results. Any systematic difference between our participants that is present even before we manipulate the independent variable Results from very specific groups of participants cannot be generalized to other groups

Research methods 2   

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Histogram – type of graph used to report the number of times groups of values appear in a data set Frequency distribution – Type of graph illustrating the distribution of how frequently values appear in the data set Normal distribution – A distribution with a characteristic smooth, symmetrical, bell shaped curve containing a single peak Mean – average of all values in the data set Outliers – extreme points distanced from other in a data set Mode – value that appears most frequently, can be used for non-numerical Median – the center value in a data set when the set is arranged numerically

Inferential statistics – Statistics that allow us to use results from samples to make inferences about overall, underlying populations Standard deviation – Measures of variability tell us how “spread out” our data is Inferential statistics – statistics that allow us to use results from samples to make inferences about overall, underlying populations T-Test – a statistical test that considers each point from both groups to calculate the probability that two samples were drawn from the same population P-Value – a value expressing the probability calculated by the t test Greater than 5% - not significant, Less than 5% - significant After finding a set of results indicating some difference between a control and experimental group, the p-value gives the probability that the results would have been found even if the control and experimental groups actually come from the same population. p-Value = 0.26 

There is a 26% chance that Eric would find the results he observed even if his hypothesis is incorrect

Statistical significance – when the difference between 2 groups is due to some true difference between the properties and not simply due to random variation. Very likely there is a true difference that isn’t a mistake. P-Value of less than 0.05 so there is less than 5% probability of obtaining the data by chance

Descriptive statistics ff Ethics in experiments 

You can’t just ask people to start smoking

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Might collect data rates in smokers and non-smokers, this is considered observational Don’t directly manipulate a participant What is the strength and direction of the relationship between X and Y?

Correlation – A measure of strength of the relationship between two variables Correlation coefficient – The degree of how close two variables are correlated Correlation does not always mean something, not always causation Can’t be over 1 R value: Correlation Coefficient, which indicates strength and direction of correlation      

Two perfect values: +1 = Positive Correlation (Variable Increases) -1 = Negative Correlation (Variable Decreases) 0 = No Correlation Closer to zero = weaker correlations Closer to -1 or +1 = Stronger correlation

Social desirability bias - Gemmy is less likely to report drug use on a survey when it is done with the experimenter in the room rather than when it is done from his home computer. Gemmy is not reporting drug use because he wants to be liked by the experimenter. He may feel like he is less likely to be judged over the computer (the social desirability bias is minimized this way). Textbook: Construct – Theoretical idea that is useful for describing a concept in a general way, but difficult to measure in practice. Empiricism – Knowledge should be based on actual observation, not reason alone. Basic Rules of Scientific Inquiry 1. Parsimony o When presented with two equally good explanations for some phenomenon, scientists tend to prefer the simpler of the two. 2. Natural Order o The same effects will be attributed to the same cause. o A behaviour is a reflection of the same underlying mechanism in all people. 3. Generalizability o The same causes that produce our effects in the lab also produce those effects in everyday life where the scientist has no control. 4. Conservatism o Tend to support the current explanation until new facts accumulate that the current explanation can’t deal with. o Will not abandon ideas until evidence forces them to find a different explanation.

Classical conditioning – allows us to associate two related events The learning of a contingency between a particular signal and a later event that are paired in time or/and space Contingencies – When one event reliably predicts another, an association may be formed between these two events  Ivan Pavlov – Famous Russian psychologist o Found dogs salivated on a sound that mean they would get food o Signal (bell) -> Event (food) o When an organism learns the association between a signal and an even we say that a contingent relationship has formed between the two stimuli Unconditional stimulus (US) – unconditionally and automatically triggers a response in the absence of any learning. Food in a dogs mouth or a lemon in your mouth. No training required Unconditioned response (UR) – The response that occurs after the unconditioned stimulus. Occurs naturally, prior to any learning. When a US occurs a UR always follows without the need for training. The response is often a biologically programed response Conditional stimulus (CS) – Previously neutral stimulus that becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, to eventually trigger a response on it’s own. Example: paired CS sound of a bell with a US of the food in the dogs mouth. Takes several trials of training before the CS alone can trigger a response Conditioned response (CR) – The response that occurs once the contingency between the CS and the US has been learned. Often this response is similar to the UR. A lemon visual que can elicit a response of salivation. Acquisition – The process by which a contingency between a CS and US is learned. Learned slowly, most of learning occurs in the earlier trials. Can be learned in a single trial. Rats can feel sick after eating a food once and know not to eat it again.

Extinction – Extinction is when a new inhibitory response is learned that counteracts the old response. If the CS is observed prior to the US following extinction, the CR may be elicited once again. The loss of the CR when the CS no longer predicts the US. At first the CS will elicit a CR but over several trials this response will become weaker and weaker. Extinction trial - Presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous recovery – The sudden recovery of a conditional response following a rest period after extinction. Not unlearned but rather extinction seems to promote a learned inhibitory response that competes with the original learned contingency. The dog (CS) and the fear (CR) she may find her fear of being bitten comes back after being extinct if she see the (CS) even without the US of being bitten. Stimulus generalization – the process by which stimuli similar to the CS will also elicit a CR. Different sounds of bombs in WW1 elicit the same CR. May have been bit by a German shepherd dog but fear all dogs. Generalization gradient – Similar tones elicit a fear response, but the less similar tones make the fear response lower. Dogs more similar to the one that bit you will create a higher fear response than ones that are different looking. Generalize your learning to avoid certain stimuli that que certain dangers One way to eliminate a fear response using extinction, show a visual stimulus of the dog that bit you, the US (being bit) will not be present. The generalization graph should flatten Stimulus discrimination – Does the opposite of stimulus generalization. Restricts the range of conditional stimuli that will elicit a response. Does this by presenting a 600hz without the shock to condition the response only to a 500hz shock. Usually generalizes evenly but wen you use discrimination training it becomes warped. To get better, do 2 trials to pin point that the 500hz will be CS+ and 600hz will be CS-. 2 important variables, CS+ and CS-. CS+ 500hz tone predicts the presence of an unconditional stimulus and the 600hz tone predicts the absence of the unconditional stimulus If both cues are heard at the same time the person will show an intermediate fear response Generalization vs discrimination – Generalization provides efficiency and flexibility and discrimination refines the learning process Phobia – Is an exaggerated, intense and persistent fear of certain situations, activities, things, or people. Include fear of snakes or planes. May have a traumatic experience with the stimulus which produces a long-lasting fear, which can be elicited by stimuli that remind him or her of the experience. 2 commonly used methods to treat phobias using classical conditioning 

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Implosive therapy – an individual is encouraged to confront the CS that evokes their anxiety. The CS is absent of the associated US. Can be a traumatic experience Systematic desensitization – Gradual exposure to the feared stimulus, start by extinguishing fear on the end of the curve gradually moving towards the middle.

Homeostasis – Your body is constantly working to keep the core temp normal, glucose and iron levels normal, and other processes going. Made more efficient through classical conditioning. When sugar is consumed glucose levels go up, this triggers insulin to be released. Blood glucose levels can therefor be maintained. Because of this our blood sugar is regulated and homeostasis is maintained. This release of insulin is an example of a compensatory response – a process which counteracts a challenge to homeostasis. To protect the body from stimuli that threaten physiological regulation.

Textbook      

Salivation for food, freezing to hide from a predator. In both cases, a conditional stimulus acts as a preparatory signal to help an organism anticipate an important biological event. Orienting response – an automatic shift of attention toward that stimulus or event. Sensitization – an increase in responding. Contiguity – the extent to which the two stimuli occur together in time and space. Higher-order conditioning – the established CS is now paired with a new stimulus, allowing the new stimulus to become another CS capable of eliciting a CR. Temporal arrangement – how the stimuli are related in terms of time.

Instrumental conditioning – Allows us to associate actions and consequences

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The learning and contingency between behavior and consequence Edward Thorndike o Early work on animals, he worked on cats in a puzzle box o After finding out what opens the box to get food, he thought the cat would get it almost immediately the next try, this isn’t what happened o The cat pulled the string by accident the first time and each following time the cat improved a little bit o Unlike humans, the cats never had a distinct aha moment, trial and error o Stamping in (rope pulling) stamping out (random behavior) whether a behavior gets kept or eliminated, leads to refinement and the cat learns the contingency between the rope and food Law of effect – Behaviours with positive consequences are stamped in, ones with negative consequences get stamped out Reinforcer – any stimulus which when presented after a response leads to a change in the rate of that response Behavioral responses are changed by both positive and negative reinforcers each of which can be presented or removed Presentation

Removal

Positive Reinforcer

Reward Training  Stamped in (Increase Behavior) Ex. For every grade “A” Billy receives, he is given $5

Omission Training  Stamped out (Decrease Behavior) Ex. If Billy fails a test, he does not get any dessert that night

Negative Reinforcer

Punishment  Stamped out (Decrease Behavior) Ex. If Billy fails English, he will have to cut the grass every week in the summer

Escape Training  Stamped in (Increase Behavior) Ex. When Billy gets a good report card, he doesn’t have to do chores for a week

Reward training – Presentation of a positive reinforcer following a response, increases the frequency of that behaviour Punishment training – Presentation of a negative reinforcer, the authority figure may through classical conditioning become a signal for pain or distress Omission training (Remove positive) – Remove a positive reinforcer, leads to a decrease in the behavior being reinforced. If a kid watches TV and teases his sister and the TV gets taken away, he doesn’t want that to happen, so he will stop teasing his sister and in turn get his TV back Omission training (time out procedure) – After a child has performed an undesired behavior he is made to leave the play area and sit alone for some time without access to the toys or friends, with the removal of the positive reinforcers the child will often stop the unwanted response

Escape training – Removal of a negative reinforcer to encourage behavior, if a rat is in a cage with one side giving an electric shock, he will move to the opposite side of the cage. If a roommate is being too loud you can bang on the wall to get the noise to go down, noise (negative reinforcer), now know to knock to avoid The timing of the reinforcer is critical to its effectiveness on a behavior, if a rat gets a mild shock every time he puts his foot down he will learn not to, but if this doesn’t come immediately, learning the contingency for the specific behaviour is harder.

Acquisition and shaping  

Acquisition in classical conditioning – The process of acquisition by which an organism learns the contingency between a stimulus and a biologically important event Acquisition in instrumental conditioning - The process of acquisition leads to learning the contingency between a response and its consequences. Interested in the rate of responding to the new behaviour

Cumulative recorder – Visualize the response rate of behaviour The flat indicates not responding, AutoShaping – Learning without direct guidance, a pigeon can learn to push a button to get food without the guidance of the researcher Some are too complex to be AutoShaped Shaping by successive approximation – Complex behaviours can be organized into smaller steps which gradually build up to the full response we hope to condition. Each of these steps can be reinforced through reward training. Over time, the successive approximations lead to the final complex behaviour. This technique is used extensively by animal trainers o

Pigeons learned to pack at the table, peck stationary ball, moving ball, peck to the other side

Contingencies are not always valid

The discriminative stimulus    

SD or S+ signals when a contingency between a particular response is “on” Third variable decides whether the contingency is valid Sδ or S- is a cue which indicates when the relationship is not valid Stimulus generalization – The discriminative stimulus can be generalized for a varied response rate

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CS vs SD – The CS elicits a reflexive response; the SD sets the occasion for a voluntary response o CS – automatically elicits response, involuntary and automatic o SD – sets the occasion for a response by signaling when the response-reinforcer outcome relationship is valid, paired with the response-reinforcer outcome, but the SD itself does not reflexively elicit the response

Schedules of reinforcement: Reinforcement doesn’t always follow a constant schedule Continuous reinforcement – A response leads to a reinforcer every single time, very rare IRL Partial reinforcement schedule: 

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Ratio responses (ratio schedule) – Based on the number of responses made by the subject, which determines when reinforcement is given, one pack for food or 10 pecks for food Interval schedule (time) – Based on the time since the last behaviour was reinforced, one peck per 10 minutes or one peck per minute Variable – Random with some average number all the attempts are similar to, provided a variable amount of work or length of time, the number of pecks or time wait to get food ranges (4,6,14,16) Fixed – (Constant) Must peck exactly 10 times to get rewarded ______________________________________________________________ Fixed Ratio (FR - #) – Fixed ratio schedul...