Unit 1 - Lecture notes for unit 1, Professor Kotovsky - Introduction To Psychology PDF

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Lecture notes for unit 1, Professor Kotovsky...

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Unit I Helmhotz ● ● ● ●

Cut out muscle tissue and attached nerve fiber from frogs leg Electrically stimulated nerve close and far from attachment point Used differences in reaction times to estimate speed of nerve impulses Speed of nerve impulse slower than expected - 50-100 m/s

Nervous system Descartes - mechanistic model ● Not total mechanist - believed in entity (soul) ● Hydraulic model: stimulus sends fluid along nerve, connected to other nerves that activate muscles by blowing them up to get a response ● Neuron ● Dendrites attached to cell body ● long strip = axon, individual = myelin sheath ● Connectors are nodes of ranvier, end is axon terminal Cephalization ● evolutionary trend - nervous tissue gravitates to one end (brain) ● increased effect of learning on behavior, longer development (due to large head) ● Why humans can learn to do more than frogs

Movement ● ● ●

Kinesis - undirected - pillbug Taxis - directed - moth phototaxis Simple reflex - unlearned

Brain Lobes clockwise ● Frontal - executive control, ● Parietal - somatosensory (touch), attention ● Occipital - vision ● Temporal - language, audition ● Localization of function Phineas Gage ● Construction accident - rod through head, destroyed frontal lobe Split-brain ● stare at dot, see right half Hippocampus ● in temporal lobe, forming new memories, HM Phrenology: early belief that brain parts = specific behaviors = bumps on skull

Action potential

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Basis for signal sent along length of neuron open Na+ enter to depolar, K+ leave in repolar Threshold for firing: -55 mV Resting: -70 mV Less potassium = slower return to resting level Refractory period: after AP unprepared for next AP All or none - each AP has same amplitude independent of stimulus strength

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id = primitive instinct/impulses, sex/agression superego = internalized rules and social norms ego = balancing mechanism between superego and id Prevent repressed impulses from disturbing sleep Prevent disturbing stimuli (alarm clock) from disturbing

Freud

Latent content → dreamwork→ manifest content→ forgetting→ remembered ● Latent: actual wishes and desires ● Manifest: symbolic expression of latent content Activation-synthesis hypothesis - Hobson ● dreams may just be byproducts of sleeping brain’s activity (activation) ● Later assemble semicoherent narrative (synthesis)

Sleep Why we need it ● Fatal familial insomnia ● hallucinations ● REM recovery Why we don’t ● Dement study - student awake for 11 days, 12 minutes, no bad side effects Aserinksy, Dement, Kleitman ● discovered REM

Hunger Hypothalamus - homeostatic control of hunger

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No lateral: won’t eat No ventromedial - overeat

Schacter Externality Hypothesis ● Obese people less sensitive to bodily cues ● Inaccurate clock: obese people always eat at noon, regardless of hunger ● Yom Kippur: inside temple w/o external cues, non-obese harder to fast Fat cell storage hypothesis ● Fat cells established through heredity ● Fill up fat cells to satisfy hunger/homeostatis ● More fat cells = obese

Aphasia ● ● ●

Wernicke’s: fluid, grammatically-correct, but meaningless speech, right Broca’s: slow, meaningful, grammatically-correct speech, left Left hemisphere - right and left on cerebral cortex

Classical conditioning ● ● ● ●

Organisms learn to associate two stimuli and respond to them similarly Neutral stimulus→conditioned stimulus after repeatedly paired with ucs Conditioned/unconditioned stimuli and and responses CS = signal that unconditioned will appear

Thorndike’s Law of Effect ● ●

Response followed by reward = strengthened Response followed by no reward/punishment = weakened

Operant conditioning ●

Environment selects out particular behaviors from an organism’s behavioral repertoire

Reinforcement schedules ● ● ● ● ●

Rules about how often and under what conditions a response will be reinforced Variable: number of responses changes per trial - difficult to get rid of learned behavior Partial: only some responses reinforced Ratio: delivering reinforcements only after a certain number of responses Latent learning: learning occurs without corresponding change in behavior

Unit II Stimuli Distal: distant, indirect, object/event in outside world ● Whatever we see or hear Proximal: near, direct, energies from outside world that directly reach sense organs ● optical image on retina, soundwaves arriving at eardrums Absolute threshold: smallest amount of a stimulus that can be detected

Difference threshold: smallest change that can be detected Just noticeable difference: smallest diff. between 2 stimuli

Empiricism John Locke ● blank slate at birth - tabula rasa ● Knowledge from world since senses are passive ● Wrongly thought distal stimulus was direct

Nativism Immanuel Kant ● Innate understanding of space, time, causation ● Required for perceptual experience

Weber-Fechner: just-noticeable difference between 2 stimuli is proportional to the magnitude of the stimuli; subjective sensation is proportional to the logarithm of the stimulus intensity Structure of the ear ○

Soundwaves enter through the outer ear, goes to stimulate eardrum ■

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Eardrum vibrates, transmits vibrations to ossicles in middle ear ■

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Oval window - membrane separating middle from inner ear

Oval window moves fluid that fills cochlea ■

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Auditory ossicles - 3 bones in the middle ear

Ossicles transmit vibrations to oval window ■

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Eardrum - taunt membrane at the end of the auditory canal

Cochlea - coiled structure in inner ear, contains basilar membrane

Fluid deforms basilar membrane, stimulates hair cells = response ■

Basilar membrane - deforms from sound waves, bends hair cells

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Hair cells - auditory receptors stimulated by basilar membrane

Hearing theories ● ●

normal range: 20-20,000 hz basilar membrane vibrates across wide area of hair cells Lateral inhibitory connections = sharpen profile of vibration (allows for Place) Frequency ● frequency of the action potential = actual frequency in real world ● Problem: neurons only fire 1000 times per second, so only hear 1000 hz Place - helmholtz ● where on the basilar membrane hair cells are firing = frequency of the sound in rw

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Problem: below 50 hz = deform whole basilar equally

Volley ● Neural firing patterns = perception of the pitch

Parts of eye ●

Light → eye through cornea

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Cornea and lens refract light = sharply focused image on retina

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Iris opens/closes to control the amount of light that reaches retina

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Retina: back of the eyeball, made of 3 layers: ■

Rods and cones - photoreceptors, in the back ●

Converts light energy into neural impulses

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Fovea: retina’s center, lots of cones, visual acuity is greatest

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No rods in fovea, mostly found at retina’s edges

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120 million rods and 6 million cones in a human eye

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Bipolar cells - in the middle

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Ganglion cells - in the front

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collect info from all over retina

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cells’ axons converge, form optic nerve

Optic nerve - bundle of fibers from each retina to the brain ●

Takes info to thalamus then cortex

Duplex theory Receptor cells in back of retina - none in blindspot (ganglion cells fill space on way out) Rods ● ● ● ● ●

sensitive to low light levels low acuity monochromatic 1 kind None in fovea - look out of peripheries at night

Cones ● Greater light intensities ● Found primarily in fovea (retina center) ● 3 different kinds to respond to different wavelengths Lateral inhibition: interaction among neurons where activity in one neuron decreases responses in adjacent neurons ● Enhances contrasts ● Light inhibits dark

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Bottom-up - mach bands, Hermann’s grid

Muller-Lyer Illusion ● ● ●

Point out midpoint of arrow, inevitably closer to tail end angles in = assume object closer angles out = object far away

Perception Top-down: fill in info not present in original stimulus Bottom-up: data-driven

Theories of Attention Encoding specificity - Godden and Baddeley ● Info translated to include thoughts/understanding of learning when stored in mem ● Deep sea divers - 2 groups to learn list of words, on land or in water ○ Better recall in environment where words were learned ● If environment reproduced at retrieval time = better/easier retrieval ● Context reinstatement: recreating environment in which learning occurred Filter theory - Broadbent ● Choose one of several inputs to focus on, ignore others ● Don’t notice changes in other channels Attenuation theory - Triesman ● Do notice some things in unattended channels (e.g. name) ● Do not eliminate info flowing in from other channels

Forgetting Retention interval - time between learning and retrieval Forgetting curve - Ebbinghaus ● negative exponential ● Memory decreases as retention interval increases ● forgetting becomes more gradual ● overlearning reduces forgetting

Memory types Declarative - recalled as facts or knowledge Procedural - recalled for performing actions Explicit - described at will, triggered by a direct question Implicit - may not recall consciously, demonstrate through indirect test (priming) Episodic - specific events and experiences Semantic - facts, not tied to place or time

STM ● ●

7 digits, 20 sec Increase with chunking

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Chase and Ericsson runner time chunking 86 digits Exhaustive and serial: scan full data set to identify answer, still scan rest of data even if answer is found early on

Primacy effect: in free recall, tendency to recall items at beginning Recency effect: tendency to recall items at end of list

Working Memory - Baddeley

articulatory loop = language, visuospatial = shapes, color, 3D objects Rugby players: better recall previous teams they faced with fewer games intervening ● Passage of time not important, more intervening events = more forgetting

LTM ● ● ●

.5 - 1 hour to consolidate memories Unlimited size

Amnesia Anterograde - HM can’t form new long-term declarative mems Mirror drawing: able to draw figure by looking at reflection - preserved motor learning Retrieval failure - tip of the tongue effect Proof that word is in memory - can know first letter, # of syllables

Visual encoding - island map Kosslyn: map of fictitious island with landmarks, asked to form mental image of island, timed while imagining a black speck travelling from one landmark to another ■ Conclusion: time imagined proportional to actual distance, so mental images accurately represent spatial relationships in the scene Shepard and Metzler blocks ●

Collins and Quillien - canary is yellow ● ● ●

Associative links - hierarchial model of semantic memory Higher level - longer to retrieve Canary → bird → animal everything relates to level below

Anderson - lawyer in park, lawyer in bank ● ● ●

activation slowed when more pathways are split “The doctor is in the bank” Faster to classify correct relations if activation had fewer pathways to spread over (doctor also in park)

Meyer and Schvaneveldt: faster reading 2 related words - nurse and doctor

Unit III Language Phoneme: smallest unit of sound Morpheme: smallest unit of meaning in a word (boy and s in boys) Critical period: first 8 years of life ● If 2nd language learned before 12, speak like native Babies ● 6 months = babbling ● Language begins early/middle of 2 ○ Holophrastic - one word = meaning of whole sentence ● Age 2: simple syntax with 2 words put together ○ Telegraphic - leaves out function words Innateness ● Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas ● FOXP2 gene - mutations = speech/language disorders ● Poverty of the stimulus: kids learn language despite little positive feedback ● Overgeneralization: upside down u curve - learn went, then -ed so goed, then learn irregularities so back to went ● Universal grammar: rules of syntax apply across languages Not innate ● Acquire language of own community/family ● Tendency to acquire language is innate, not language itself Animals ● Unproductive: cannot create/understand infinitely large number of utterances ● Not symbolic

Humans ● Arbitrary, productive, symbolic, displacement, discrete

Attachment ● ● ● ●

Ainsworth - “strange situation” w/ kids separated from mom Secure: minor distress, greet with enthusiasm Insecure: anxious/avoidant or anxious/resistant Disorganized: inconsistent behaviors

Parenting styles 1. Authoritative: considered best 2. Autocratic 3. Permissive

Attachment - Harlow monkeys ● ● ●

2 surrogate monkeys - one wire with milk, one cloth with no milk Monkeys prefered cloth - when scared by mech. toy, went to it Secure attachment from contact comfort, not food

Motive to Achieve - McClelland ●

Avoidance ○ Fear of failure that spurs desire to achieve ○ Parenting style: punishing failure ○ Performance orientation: appearance of intelligence, does not handle negative feedback well

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Approach ○ Desire for success that leads people toward achievement behavior ○ Seek out challenges and excel in difficult situations ○ Parenting style: rewarding achievement ○ Mastery orientation: learning, improving, handles negative feedback well

Kohlberg - moral development ●

early and late stages so 6 all together

1. Preconventional reasoning - getting rewards, avoiding punishment a. punishment avoidance, control of others b. egocentric - individual instrumental purpose 2. Conventional - Social relationships, conventions, and duties a. “good boy, good girl” - mutual interpersonal expectations b. law and order - social system and conscience 3. Postconventional - Ideals and broad moral principles a. social contract b. universal ethical principles

Piaget - stage theory 1. Sensorimotor: 0-2, gain object permanence

2. Preoperational: 2-7, egocentric (can’t see things from different perspectives) 3. Concrete operational: 7-11, logical thinking about concrete problems 4. Formal operational: 11/12+, inductive and deductive reasoning, abstract problems ● ●

Good: broad age span, broad spectrum of thinking developments Bad: infants display object permanence earlier than predicted, development may not be discrete but gradual

Info-processing view ● increased STM capacity, increased meta-cognitive skill, increased expertise/familiarity = differences in behaviors ● Not about “stages” A not b ● Infants reach for hidden object where it was previously placed, not current ● Shows lack of object permanence

Habituation ● ●

Expose to a stimulus, gets adjusted (habituated) and ignores New stimulus: if infant shows interest, shows infant knows new stimulus different from old

Attitude Components - ABCs 1. Affective: positive or negative 2. Behavioral: how people act 3. Cognitive: what people think Maintaining consistency 1. Selective exposure 2. Selective memory 3. Selective interpretation Attitude change methods: low-balling, reciprocity (obligation), bait and switch, door in the face, foot in the door

Attitude consistency theories ●

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Balance theory - Heider ○ Unbalanced with 2 + (object, yourself, someone else triangle) ○ Balanced with 3 + or 3 ○ Change attitude or behavior Cognitive Dissonance theory - Festinger ○ 2 beliefs or attitudes in conflict - change one or both ○ Justification of effort - Aronson and Mills - explicit book club ■ Women to join book club: could go in and listen or had to read sexually explicit material ■ Women who went through initiation found it interesting, without thought it was boring ○ Inadequate external justification ■ Didn’t lie if participants in boring experiment got $20 because it was

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adequate, lied if they got $1 ■ Kids played with toys if not explicitly told not to ○ Consequences of a decision - Brehm ■ Changed attitude based on behavior - housewives rating appliances Self Perception Theory - Bem ○ We know own attitudes/feelings by observing our behaviors and deciding what caused them ○ Valins: People afraid of snakes hooked up to fake heart rate monitor: did not hear heart rate increase so found themselves not afraid of snakes

Obedience ● ● ●

Asch: ⅔ conform when 3+ people are in a unanimous majority ○ Confederates would lie to get participants to conform Only need 1 ally to stand by view (even in large majority) Conforming good regarding laws, bad when not sticking by views

Bystander Apathy ● ● ● ● ●

Kitty Genevose - murdered in NYC in front of lots of bystanders Epilepsy experiment - more people = less likely to get help Woman falling in other room: less likely to help with others in room Smoke-filled room: dependent on confederate’s behavior Controlled by mechanisms: ○ Conformity ○ Moral diffusion (not the only one who can help it) ○ Lack of expertise ○ Worry about performing in front of audience

Obedience - Milgam ● ●

⅔ of subjects order the delivery of high electric shocks to other people supposedly protesting to quit the experiment Social factors underlying explanations: ○ Gradually increasing nature of involvement (foot in the door) ○ Social isolation ○ Desire to help with experiment ○ Lack of reliance on inner direction

Schien’s Korean POW study ● Social isolation - prevents checking reality with others ● Socially isolated people - manipulated and controlled ● Some can resist based on internalized moral code...