Week 2 - Prof Kan Siew Ning PDF

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Week 2 1. List the benefits of classifying personality traits. p. 33 2. Describe the Big Five personality dimensions. p. 33 3. Explain the universality of traits of effective leaders. p. 37 4. Discuss why the trait of dominance is so important for managers to have. p. 37 5. State how the Achievement Motivation Theory and the Leader Motive Profile are related and different. p. 42 6. Identify similarities and differences among Theory X and Theory Y, the Pygmalion effect, and self-concept. p. 48 7. Describe how attitudes are used to develop four leadership styles. p. 52 8. Compare the three levels of moral development. p. 54 9. Explain the stakeholder approach to ethics. p. 58 10. Define the following key terms (in order of appearance in the chapter): traits  personality  personality profiles  Big Five Model of Personality  self-awareness  surgency personality dimension  social awareness  agreeableness personality  self-management dimension  relationship management  adjustment personality dimension  Achievement Motivation Theory Leader Motive Profile  conscientiousness personality Theory dimension  Leader Motive Profile (LMP) attitudes  openness-to-experience  Theory X and Theory Y personality dimension

Benefits of classifying personality traits Traits: distinguishing personal characteristics Personality: combination of traits that classifies an individual’s behaviour Personality is developed based on genetics and environmental factors. Genes received influence personality traits. Family, friends, school, and work also influence personality. Important to understand because: - personality affects behaviour as well as perceptions and attitudes - explain and predict others’ behaviour and job performance Big 5 Model of Personality categorizes traits into the dimensions of surgency, agreeableness, adjustment, conscientiousness, and openness to experience (1) Surgency/Dominance - includes leadership and extraversion traits. - Strong in surgency: personality traits want to be in charge o Dominant behaviour range from interest in getting ahead, and leading through competing and influencing - Weak in surgency: wants to be followers, don’t want to compete or influence -

Extraversion: continuum between extrovert and introvert Extroverts: outgoing, like to meet new people, assertive and willing to confront others Introverts: shy

(2) Agreeableness - Traits related to getting along with people - Strong: warm and caring, easygoing and compliant, compassionate and gentle, friendly and sociable - Weak: cold, difficult, uncompassionate, unfriendly, and unsociable. (3) Adjustment - traits related to emotional stability - a continuum between being emotionally stable and unstable. - Stable: self-control, being calm—good under pressure, relaxed, secure, and positive—praising others; - Unstable (also called neuroticism) is out of control—poor under pressure, nervous, insecure, negative, and hostile (4) Conscientiousness - Traits related to achievement.

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Continuum between responsible/dependable to irresponsible/undependable High: credibility, conformity, organisation  willing to work hard and put in extra time and effort to accomplish goals to achieve success (organisation citizenship behaviour)

(5) Openness to Experience - Traits related to being willing to change and try new things - Strong: Imaginative, non-conforming, unconventional and autonomous - Weak: avoid change and new things Highest correlation with leadership: - Surgency - Conscientiousness - Openness to experience - Agreeableness - Adjustment (negatively related to leadership) Universality of traits of effective leaders - there appear to be some traits that consistently differentiate leaders from others, so trait theory does have some claim to universality - However, traits are not universal in the sense that there is no one list of traits that is clearly accepted by all researchers, and not all effective leaders have all the traits. - 9 traits: 1. dominance 2. high energy 3. internal locus of control 4. integrity 5. flexibility 6. self-confidence 7. stability 8. intelligence 9. sensitivity to others (1) Dominance Why trait of dominance is impt for managers to have - Successful leaders want to be managers and to take charge. However, they are not overly bossy, nor use a bullying style. - If a person does not want to be a leader, it is most likely that he will not be an effective manager. - Thus, the dominance trait affects all other traits related to effective leaders. (2) High energy - Positive drive to work hard to achieve goals. - Focus on positive and have stamina and tolerate stress well. - Optimism shapes their decisions to lead - Leaders have enthusiasm and don’t give up as they project a positive attitude - Deal with but don’t accept setbacks - Not viewed as pushy and obnoxious - Have high tolerance for frustration as they strive to overcome obstacles through persistence - Take initiative to bring about improvements, rather than ask permission. Don’t have to be told what to do. - Categorized as the conscientious dimension (3) Self Confidence - Self-assured in judgments, decision making, ideas and capabilities - Display self-assurance about abilities and foster confidence among followers. - As leaders gain followers’ respect, they also influence them. - Self-confidence influences individual goals, efforts, and task persistence. Leaders refuse to give in to self-doubt - Positively related to effectiveness and is a predictor of success - Leaders are, however, realistically self-confident; they are not viewed as arrogant “know it alls” who alienate people, and they are emotionally stable. - Categorized as the conscientious dimension (4) Locus of control - Internal belief in control over one’s destiny

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Internalizers (leaders) believe that they control their fate and that their behavior directly affects their performance. Leaders take responsibility for who they are, for their behavior and performance, and for the performance of their organizational unit Future-oriented self-confident and learn from their mistakes, rather than blaming others or just bad luck categorized as openness to experience category

(5) Stability - emotionally in control of themselves - don’t let anger have negative outcoomes - Effective leaders have a good understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses, and they are oriented toward self-improvement rather than being defensive - relates to effective leaders knowing when to lead and when to follow (6) Integrity - behavior that is honest and ethical, making a person trustworthy. - honest, support their followers, and keep confidences. - If dishonest, will lose followers’ trust (7a) Intelligence - a cognitive ability to think critically, to solve problems, and to make decisions. - best predictor of job performance. - categorized as openness to experience category (7b) Emotional Intelligence - Ability to work well with people, essential to healthy relationships. - Increases job performance - 4 components:  self-awareness  being conscious of your emotions and how they affect your personal and professional life.  social awareness  ability to understand others  empathy: ability to put yourself in other people’s situations, sense their emotions, and understand things from their perspective.  also includes the ability to develop networks and play organizational politics  self-management  ability to control disruptive emotions.  Characteristics of self-management include self-motivation, integrity, conscientiousness, adaptability, and optimism  relationship management  ability to work well with others, dependent on the other 3 components  Successful leaders build effective relationships by communicating, responding to emotions, handling conflict, and influencing others. (8) Flexibility - Ability to adjust to different situations - Leaders need to stay ahead of the immense number of changes in the world, and the pace of change will continue to increase. (9) Sensitivity to others - understanding group members as individuals, what their positions on issues are, and how best to communicate with and influence them. - Requires EQ to be sensitive - Sensitivity means not focusing on putting yourself first and remembering that the more you help others, the more you get in return

Achievement Motivation Theory and Leader Motive Profile Theory (1) Achievement Motivation Theory - Seeks to explain and predict behaviour and performance based on a person’s need for achievement, power, and affiliation

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We have needs and we need to satisfy them. This is an unconscious process - Need for Achievement  an unconscious concern for excellence in accomplishments through individual efforts  strong:  have an internal locus of control, self-confidence, and high energy traits,  wanting to take personal responsibility for solving problems  goal oriented and set moderate, realistic, attainable goals  seek challenge, excellence and individuality; take calculated, moderate risk; desire concrete feedback on their performance; and work hard  think about ways to do a better job, how to accomplish something unusual or important, and career progression. They perform well in non-routine, challenging, and competitive situations  Characterised as conscientious dimension -

Need for Power  Unconscious concern for influencing others and seeking positions of authority.  Strong:  have the dominance trait and tend to be self-confident with high energy  wanting to control the situation, wanting influence or control over others, enjoying competition in which they can win (they don’t like to lose), being willing to confront others, and seeking positions of authority and status  ambitious and have a lower need for affiliation  More concerned about getting their own way (influencing others) than about what others think of them.  attuned to power and politics as essential for successful leadership.  Characterised as surgency dimension.

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Need for Affiliation  Not a leader (negatively related)  unconscious concern for developing, maintaining, and restoring close personal relationships  Strong:  a sensitivity to others  seeking close relationships with others, wanting to be liked by others, enjoying lots of social activities, and seeking to belong; so they join groups and organizations  think about friends and relationships.  enjoy developing, helping, and teaching others. They seek jobs as teachers, in human resource management, and in other helping professions  more concerned about what others think of them than about getting their own way (influencing others).  Tend to have lower n Pow  avoid management because they like to be one of the group rather than its leader.  Characterised as agreeableness dimension

(2) Leader Motive Profile Theory - attempts to explain and predict leadership success based on a person’s need for achievement, power, and affiliation (relation to Achievement Motivation Theory) - includes a high need for power, which is socialized; that is, greater than the need for affiliation and with a moderate need for achievement. Power - essential to leaders because it is a means of influencing followers - To be successful, leaders need to want to be in charge and enjoy the leadership role. Socialised Power - Power is neither good nor bad. It can be used for personal gain at the expense of others (personalized power), or it can be used to help oneself and others (socialized power) - Effective leaders use socialized power, which includes the traits of sensitivity to others and stability, and is the Big Five adjustment dimension - Thus a person with a low need for affiliation can have a high sensitivity to other Achievement - Leaders generally need to have a moderate need for achievement. They have high energy, self-confidence, and openness-to-experience traits, and they are conscientious (Big Five dimension).

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Reason for a moderate rather than a high need for achievement, which would include a lower need for power, is the danger of personalized power. People with a high need for achievement tend to seek individual achievement, and when they are not interested in being a leader, there is the chance for personalized power and derailment.

Affiliation - Effective leaders have a lower need for affiliation than power, so that relationships don’t get in the way of influencing followers State how the Achievement Motivation Theory and the Leader Motive Profile are related and different. Achievement Motivation and Leader Motive Profile theo- ries are related because both are based on the need for achievement, power, and affiliation. They are different because the Achievement Motivation Theory is a gen- eral motive profile for explaining and predicting behavior and performance, while the LMP is the one profile that specifically explains and predicts leadership success.

Leadership Attitudes Attitudes are positive or negative feelings about people, things, and issues. Theory X and Y attempt to explain and predict leadership behavior and performance based on the leader’s attitude about followers - Theory X attitudes: hold that employees dislike work and must be closely supervised in order to do their work. Theory Y attitudes: hold that employees like to work and do not need to be closely supervised in order to do their work. -

Managers with Theory X attitudes tend to have a negative, pessimistic view of employees and display more coercive, autocratic leadership styles using external means of controls, such as threats and punishment. Managers with Theory Y attitudes tend to have a positive, optimistic view of employees and display more participative leadership styles using internal motivation and rewards

Pygmalion Effect proposes that leaders’ attitudes toward and expectations of followers, and their treatment of them, explain and predict followers’ behaviour and performance. - Set a high standard, and followers seemingly perform better Self-concept refers to the positive or negative attitudes people have about themselves. - If you have a positive view of yourself as being a capable person, you will tend to have the positive self-confidence trait. - A related concept, self-efficacy, is the belief in your own capability to perform in a specific situation. - Self-efficacy is based on self-concept and is closely related to the self- confidence trait

Identify similarities and differences among Theory X and Theory Y, the Pygmalion effect, and self-concept. The concept of Theory X and Theory Y is similar to the Pygmalion effect, because both theories focus on the leader’s attitude about the followers. The Pygmalion effect extends Theory X and Theory Y attitudes by including the leader’s expectations and how he or she treats the followers, using this information to explain and predict followers’ behavior and performance. In contrast, Theory X and Theory Y focus on the leader’s behavior and performance. Both approaches are different from selfconcept because they examine the leader’s attitudes about others, whereas self-concept relates to the leader’s attitude about him- or herself. Self-concept is also different because it focuses on how the leader’s attitude about him- or herself affects his or her behavior and performance. Describe how attitudes are used to develop four leadership styles. The leader’s attitude about others includes Theory Y (positive) and Theory X (negative) attitudes. The leader’s attitude about him- or herself includes a positive selfconcept or a negative self-concept. Combinations of these variables are used to identify four leadership styles: Theory Y positive self- concept, Theory Y negative self-concept, Theory X positive self-concept, and Theory X negative self- concept.

Ethical Leadership Ethics are the standards of right and wrong that influence behavior. Right behavior is considered ethical 3 Factors affecting ethical behaviour (1) Personality Traits and Attitudes - Leaders with surgency (dominance) personality traits have two choices: to use power for personal benefit or to use socialized power. To gain power and to be conscientious with high achievement, some people will use unethical behavior; also, irresponsible people often do not perform to standard by cutting corners and other behavior which may be considered unethical. - An agreeableness personality sensitive to others can lead to following the crowd in either ethical or unethical behavior; - Having a high self-concept tends to lead to doing what the person believes is right and not following - Emotionally unstable people and those with external locus of control (they do not take personal responsibility for their behaviour—it is not their fault) are more likely to use unethical behavior. - Being ethical is part of integrity. - People open to new experiences are often ethical - People with positive attitudes about ethics tend to be more ethical than those with negative or weak attitudes about ethics. (2) Moral Development - refers to understanding right from wrong and choosing to do the right thing - 3 levels of personal moral development: 1. Postconventional  Behaviour is motivated by universal principles of right and wrong, regardless of the expectations of the leader or group.  One seeks to balance the concerns for self with those of others and the common good.  He or she will follow ethical principles even if they violate the law at the risk of social rejection, economic loss, and physical punishment  Make an effort to define moral principles regardless of leader or group ethics.  The common leadership style is visionary and committed to serving others and a higher cause while empowering followers to reach this level. 2.

Conventional  Maintain expected standards and living up to expectations of others motivates behaviour to fulfill duties and obligations.  It is common for followers to copy the behaviour of the leaders and group.  Peer pressure is used to enforce group norms  Common for lower-level managers to use a similar leadership style of the higher level managers

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Preconventional  choose right and wrong behavior based on your self-interest and the consequences (reward and punishment)  often end up using unethical behaviour not only because it was up to their advantage, but also because they had created their own rationale for what is acceptable  The common leadership style is autocratic toward others while using one’s position for personal advantage.

Compare the three levels of moral development. At the lowest level of moral development, preconventional, behavior is motivated by self-interest, seeking rewards, and avoiding punishment. At the second level, conventional, behaviour is motivated by meeting the group’s expectations to fit in by copying others’ behaviour. At the highest level, postconventional, behavior is motivated to do the right thing, at the risk of alienating the group. The higher the level of moral development, the more ethical is the behaviour.

(3) The situation - Situational forces determine ethical conduct - Highly competitive and unsupervised situations increase the odds of unethical behaviour. Unethical behaviour occurs more often when there is no formal ethics policy or code of ethics, and when unethical behaviour is not punished, and it is especially prevalent when it is rewarded.

Moral justification The process of reinterpreting immoral behaviour in terms of a higher purpose.

Examples: - Displacement of responsibility: process of blaming one’s unethical behaviour on others. - Diffusion of responsibility: process of the group using the unethical behaviour with no one person being held responsible - Advantageous comparison: process of comparing oneself to others who are worse. - Disregard or distortion of consequences: process of minimizing the harm caused by the unethical behaviour - Attribution of blame: process of claiming the unethical behaviour was caused by someone else’s behaviour - Euphemistic labeling: process of using “cosmetic” words to make the behaviour sound acceptable.

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