Classics 2MT3 Midterm 2 Helpful Tips PDF

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Midterm 2 and Final Exam Tips from club medterm...

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Classics 2MT3 Midterm 2 Helpful Tips (Chapters 6-12)

Latin Translations For translating any phrase (anything >1 word), it is really important to identify whether each word is a noun or adjective. Simple rule worth repeating: If the word has an adjectival ending, it is an adjective. If it’s not an adjective, it’s a noun. (Remember, in Latin, adjectival endings are generally very close to the end of the word, right before the Latin inflectional ending). Latin inflectional endings are the 1-3 letters at the end of Latin words (part of both nouns and adjectives) that indicate its case, number, and gender. But all nouns in this course are in the nominative form (case), so you’re really only concerned about its number (singular or plural) and its gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter). Having one of the adjectival endings (-ic, -al, -ar, -an, -ac, -ous, -ine, -ary, -oid) in a word indicates that it is an adjective. Latin inflectional endings are added after an adjectival ending to indicate its number and gender. Adjectives always agree with (match) the noun that they are describing in number and gender. For example, in the phrase “musculus cardiacus”, “musculus” (the noun) is masculine singular (indicated by -us ending), thus “cardiacus” (the adjective that describes it) also has an ending signifying masculine singular (also -us because it’s a regular adjective). Another important rule: adjectives always follow the noun they are describing in Latin phrases. But note that English phrases (where adjectives come before nouns) can pop up (ex. arteriolar nephrosclerosis), so a fail-safe way to translate any phrase would be identifying the nouns & adjectives.

How to Translate Latin Phrases (Noun then adjective(s))  Know that the first word will always be a noun, thus the first word of the translation should be “the”  All other words in the phrase should be adjectives, each separately describing the noun (order of adjectives doesn’t matter)

 The most important part is to find the number (singular or plural) of the noun using its Latin inflectional ending, as this greatly affects the translation o Singular: The X ... (Ex. The arm..) o Plural: The X-es ... (Ex. The arms..)  The adjectival translations in terms of number doesn’t matter as much, as long as you get the noun’s number correct in the translation o Ex. “The veins p.t. the/an arm” vs “the veins p.t. the arms” doesn’t really matter o But “ The veins p.t. the arm” is significantly different than “The vein p.t. the arm”  Remember a phrase translation should always be “the [noun](,) p.t. the/a [adjective]” o Never start a phrase translation with “p.t. the/a [adjective]” o It has to be “p.t.” and not “of” if translating an adjective

Using the Latin Chart

Or, a simplified version of the chart with only endings: Gender/Number

Noun ending

Regular Adjective endings, added after: x-ic, x-ous, xan, x-ine, x-ac, x-oid

Irregular Adjective endings, added after :x-al, x-ary, x-ar (-is type)

Masc Sing

-us, -is

-us

-is

Masc Plur

-i, -es

-i

-es

Fem Sing

-a, -is

-a-

-is

Fem Plur

-ae, -es

-ae

-es

Neut Sing

-um, -on, -e

-um

-e

Neut Plur

-a

-a

-ia

Notice there are 2 types of adjectival endings:  Regular ending (type I): the ending is exactly the noun ending, these follow -ic, -ous, -an, -ine, -ac, -oid adjectival endings  Irregular ending (type II): the ending is different than the noun ending (pay attention to these endings), these follow -al, -ary, -ar adjectival endings Worthy things to note  The noun/regular adjective ending -a can indicate either feminine singular or neuter plural (*pay attention to this one)  The irregular adjectival/noun/regular adjectival ending -is can indicate masculine or feminine singular, and similarly -es can indicate masculine or feminine plural  The irregular adjectival ending -e is always neuter singular, and similarly -ia (notice the i) is always neuter plural  If you are unsure about the number/gender of a word because its ambiguous/there can be several options, remember that the both the noun and adjective(s) will tell you information about the number/gender o Ex. In “vena cervicalis”, the -a noun ending means it could be feminine singular or neuter plural. You aren’t sure, but if you look at the adjective describing the ambiguous noun, it ends in an -is ending, thus you know it has to be feminine singular and you need to

translate it as “The vein p.t. the neck” rather than “The veins p.t. the neck” (which it would be IF it was neuter plural, which you would know if the adjective ended in -ia). o Unfortunately, that only works with irregular adjectives. Otherwise you just need to remember the genders of singular Latin nouns to distinguish between feminine singular and neuter plural. Chart of Latin singular nouns (possible first words in Latin phrases) and their genders, know the notable exceptions (in red):

o o “ductus” & “sinus” is masculine singular, but their plural forms are the same o “cartilago” & “phalanx” don’t look like typical feminine nouns, plurals are “cartilagines” & “phalanges” respectively o “os” & “vas” don’t look like typical neuter nouns, plurals are “ossa” and “vas” respectively o All others not mentioned look like typical nouns of that gender, and are also pluralized typically

Diminutives o Translated as “a little x” o Combining forms indicative of a diminutive: -ul-, -cul-, -ell-, -ill-, -ol- and they come before a noun ending (Ex. x-ulus) o You should note combining forms that look like diminutives, but aren’t: ex. ventriculus, clavicula, fibula, valvula, acetabulum, pupilla, musculus o If unsure, know that all combining forms are listed in the appendix as normal non-diminutive forms, so you can check if it’s actually a diminutive or not that way Membranes  There are 3 combining forms that could be a substance or a membrane: synov(i)o, ser(os)o, muc(os)o (synovial membrane, serous membrane, mucous membrane)  Context shows whether the membrane or substance is meant  sero-x-it-is: (if x has a serous coat) the inflammation of the serous coat of x o Ex. Serocolitis: the inflammation of the serous coat of the colon Glass  Translate as “something resembling glass” rather than just “glass” (we don't have glass in our bodies)

... Of the abdominal wall  If celi-o-x/lapar-o-x & -ostomy/-ectomy/-otomy: translate as “… x through the abdominal wall” o Ex. celiotomy is “the cutting through the abdominal wall”  This translation exists because the abdomen is an area & the abdominal wall is used when needing to refer to something specific  Similar: lumb-o (designates whole area) & colp-o (specifically denotes a cavity w walls) are treated like celio-o/lapar-o (not commonly seen though)

o Ex. lumbocolostomy: the making of an opening in the colon through the loin

All the Different Ducts  hepat-ic-o/hepatocholangi-o: the hepatic duct (a particular bile duct serving the liver, there’s only one) o Note that hepatic-o... isn’t “p.t. the liver” if it’s not at the end of the word (Ex. hepaticocholangiosis: “an abnormal condition involving the common bile duct and the hepatic duct”) o It will mean “p.t. the liver” if it’s at the end of the word (ex. vas hepatica)  pancreat-ic-o: pancreatic duct  cholangi-o: bile duct (any, there’s multiple)  chole-doch-o: the common bile duct (there’s only one)  cystic-o: cystic duct

Pseud-o used as if it’s a prefix  pseud-o-x-N (if the word is a noun): a/the false x  pseud-o-x-A (if the word is an adjective): falsely p.t. x

sutura x-o-z-al (where x and z are bones of the head)  Translate as “the suture between z and x”  “Maxilla” & “mandible” are also bones of the head -> call by maxilla/mandible rather than “upper jaw/lower jaw” if referring to head bones

z-o-x-oid (where x-oid is an english word)  Translate as “p.t. x and z”  Ex. parietosphenoid: p.t. the sphenoid bone & parietal bone

Lung/Air  Short form of both is “pneum-o”, so need to use context if see “pneum-o” (but if really can’t tell its probably lungs)  “pne-um(on)-o”: almost always referring to lung, not air (remember pneumonia)  “pne-um(at)-o”: almost always referring to air, not lung (remember pneumatic)

More General Misc. Tips  When naming anatomic parts, usually use “and” in between parts o Ex. vena thoracobrachialis: The veins p.t. the arms and the chest o “Involving” is more often used for abstract processes  Phrases like "os parietale" would be translated as “the parietal bone” rather than “a bone p.t. the parietal bone” (redundant)  os (latin noun) - can be mouth or bone, but if its 1st word its going to be bone  An antrum is a cavity, so use common sense when translating o Ex. antrostomy: the making of an opening in something involving an antrum (you can’t make an opening in a cavity)  If you see something that seems normal - remember we are naming disorders, but it’s OK to translate as you usually would o Ex. encephalemic - blood is usually in brain, but disorder: maybe too much blood  x-iferous looks different when its used as a Latin adjective o x-iferi (describing masculine plural noun) o x-ifera (describing femine singular/neuter plural noun) o x-iferum (describing neuter singular noun)

 masto-: usually means breast - only means mastoid process when another element in compound designates part of the head  cardio-: can be heart or cardiac part of the stomach, cardiac = prob heart, cardial = prob cardiac part of the stomach  vesico-: always means bladder if defining anatomy (cysts are problems)  phreno-: can be a mind or diaphragm, depends on context  neuro-: means emotions in psychology  in-/inoso- only means fiber when it comes at the start of the word  uremia: the abnormal presence of urinary elements in blood  "something involving tears” is almost always "the tear sac" o Ex. Dacryocele: “the protrusion of a tear sac” rather than “the protrusion of something involving tears”  tumours (plural): omata  Plural Latin inflectional endings are added to the longer combining form (if there is >1 combining form), unless the longer combining form is a diminutive or has an adjectival ending...