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Many theories. Most notes for test "one" exist here. ...

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Chapter Outline ● How have parenting beliefs changed over time? ● Who/What has shaped our parenting beliefs throughout history, and how? ● How can we use research to understand parenting? Socialization The role that parents play in a child’s life Six fundamental tasks of parenting (Bradley) ● ● ● ● ● ●

Safety and sustenance Socioemotional support Structuring Stimulating and instructing Monitoring/surveillance Social connections

Aries’ Thesis ● Beliefs about children change over time ● Childhood as a developmental stage did not exist during the middle ages ● Adult-centered view of children ● Child-centered view of children ● Critiques John Calvin Total Depravity, admonitions John Robinson Harsh punishment to restrain children’s innate evil John Wesley Corporal punishment; disobedience=moral disorder 2004 - United Methodist Church Resolution to end corporal punishment 2012 - Presbyterian Church USA Resolution to end corporal punishment Aristotle Blank tablets, environment shapes child, patriarchal society John Locke Some thoughts concerning education, children are rational beings, early development Jean-Jaceuax ***

Physicians Historically, many directives on child health/child rearing based on personal ideas rather than medical knowledge Goal was to combat infant illnesses and death Luther Emmet Holt The care and feeding of children Leading book on childcare in the us for almost 50 yrs Benjamin Spock The common sense book of baby and child care Most widely read and influential child care manual ever published Early Psychologists G. Stanley Hall Pioneer in american psychology Initiated child, parent, and adolescent research Proponents of corporal punishment John B. Watson (Father of behavorism) Little Albert The psychological care of infant and child Scientific Theory: Substantiated Based on facts Confirmed through observation/experiment Not a guess Experts do not always agree Lay Theory Informal and unscientific Folk beliefs Not empirically verified Reflects conventional wisdom Social and political forces Society in general, politics, and the legal system contribute to the way we think about children These influences can be seen in areas of child labor, children’s education, child welfare, and children’s rights Child maltreatment across history Child mortality - child death prior to age five Family economic influence on child treatment

Social and political forces The history of childhood is a nightmare from which we have only recently begun t oawaken. The further back in history one goes, the lower level of Evaluating scientific information Success Immigrant drive Parent-teachers Political activism Controlled chaos Lessons in morality A free-range childhood BUT… Systematic, empirical reseharch needed To correct erroneous beliefs Gain new knowledge Cora bussey Hills Research beginnings publications begin during the 20s Experts do not agree Discipline Based more on political philosophy than research National children’s study 100000 children being studied in 98 US locations Jounal devoted to the topic Parenting science and practice Best source for summaries of research Handbook of parenting (Bornstein, 2002) Behavioral Genetics Theory Goal: Understand genetic influences on human behavior Genotype: Genetic makeup Phenotype: How the genotype is expressed ●

Gene-Environment Interaction ○ Think about the previous slide ○ Passive role - a child’s parents, due to their own genetic makeup create an environment that is independent of the influence of the child’s genotype ○ Active role - genes directing a child to seek out certain environments

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Evocative role - when parents react to a child’s phenotype in a particular unique way Heredity vs environment ○ Heredity- characteristics obtained from genes ○ Environment- a person’s surroundings Feral Child ○ A feral child (also, colloquially, wild child) is a human child who has lived isolated from human contact from a very young age, and has no experience of human care, loving or social behavior, and crucially, of human language. ○ Genie the feral child Ecological systems theory ○ Urie Bronfenbrenner ○ Recognition that a child develops within multiple contexts ■ Individual ■ Microsystem ■ Mesosystem ● ■ Exosystem ● Neighbors ■ Macrosystem: ● Culture ■ Chronosystem Bandura’s Social Learning Theory ○ Bobo Doll studies of social learning in the 1960s ○ Observational learning and reinforcement ○ Social cognitive theory ■ Role of feelings of self-efficacy Parental Emphases: ○ Zone of proximal development ○ Scaffolding Piaget and Learning ○ Two main stages - equilibrium ○ Believed that we are driven or motivated to learn when we are in disequilibrium ■ We want to understand things ○ Equilibration: assimilation and accommodation ■ We adjust our ideas to make sense of reality ○ Assimilation ■ Process of matching external reality to an existing cognitive structure ○ Accommodation: ■ When there’s an inconsistency between the learner’s cognitive structure and the thing being learned the child will reorganize her thoughts The sensorimotor stage: ○ Active and interaction with their environment through sensation and movement

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The preoperational stage: ○ The child agrees that beakers a and b contain the same amount of water ○ Conservation ○ Egocentrism The concrete operational stage The Formal Operational Stage ○ Abstract thought ■ Law Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development ○ Covers lifespan development ○ Trust vs Mistrust (0-1 yr) ■ Is my social world predictable and supportive? ○ Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (1-3 yrs) ■ Can I do things for myself or must I always rely on others? ○ Initiative vs Guilt (3-6 yrs) ■ Am I good or bad? ○ Industry vs Inferiority (6-12 yrs) ■ Am I successful or am I worthless? ○ Identity vs Role Confusion (adolescence, early teens) ■ Who am I? ○ Intimacy vs Isolation (Young Adults) ■ Shall I share my life with another person or will I live alone? ○ Generativity vs Stagnation (middle adults) ■ Will I succeed in my life, both as a parent and as a worker? ○ Ego Integrity vs Despair (older adult, after retirement) ■ Have I lived a full life or have I failed?

Ch. 3 Approaches to Parenting Research (1/28/19) ●

Parenting Traits ○ Describing parents with one major child-rearing quality or characteristic ■ Overprotective ○ Baumrind’s Typology ■ Authoritative ● High control ● High warmth ■ Authoritarian ● High Control ● Low warmth ■ Permissive ● Low Control ● High Warmth ■ Neglective

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● Low Control ● Low Warmth ○ Two dimensions: ■ Control ■ Warmth Child Effects and Transactions ○ C influences P instead of P influencing C ○ Examples of Child characteristics ■ Child Features: Age, gender, birth order ■ Physical or Personal Attributes: Birth Order, Attractiveness ■ Behavior: Misbehavior, temperament, activity level, quality of attachment to parents Differential Susceptibility ○ Idea that children with difficult temperaments will respond more to parenting than other children

Common Errors Parents make from social learning perspective ● Reinforce the wrong behaviors ● Forget to reward positive behaviors ● Overreact ● Give long verbal explanations

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Social Address ○ Comparing parents who live in different locations or have different characteristics, including ■ Culture ■ Geographical locale ■ Religious background ■ racial/ethnic group ■ Socioeconomic status The Case of co-sleeping ○ Sleeping practices with infants and children vary greatly around the world Large datasets ○ Newest approach ○ Uses longitudinal datasets ○ Allows for testing hypotheses with nonexperimental designs ○ Enables investigation of how different variables interrelate Moderators and mediators ○ Moderator variable - affects the strength or direction of a relation between two other variables ■ E.G., child’s temperament moderates parental behavior and in turn, affects conscience development

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Mediator variable - changes how or why two variables are associated ■ E.g., child’s appraisal of parental conflict can change how a child reacts to the conflict Hold Lecture ○ “The best way to empower children is to disempower parents” ○ Positive Parenting: ○ The need for discipline: ■ Disciplina= “to instruct” or “to teach” ■ Contemporary definition: “training someone to follow the rules and obey using punishment ○ Home Audio Study: ■ Mothers wore arm recorders ■ Conflict in the home ● Average=every 5 minutes ■ American style discipline ● Reasoning ● Yelling ● Remove privileges ● Time out ● Spanking and slapping ■ In 15/33 families, ● Average use of corporal punishment was every 2.1hrs ○ Corporal punishment ■ Positives: ● Compliance immediately ● Nothing else ■ Negatives: ● Aggression ● More likely to show anxiety or depressive behaviors ● More likely to be abused ○ Child rears punishment and parent returns harder ○ Becomes abuse ● Quality of parent and child relationships ● Toxic for brain development ○ Increased cortisol levels ○ Cortisol: Hormone for stress ■ Alters a lot of vital signs ■ Prolonged exposure increases to more reactivity to situations ■ “Fight or flight hormone” ○ How to changes attitudes and behavior ■ Increase awareness ■ Counciling

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Corporal punishment: ■ Traditional Parenting: ● Parent centered ● Oriented toward immediate compliance ● Incorporates the belief that it needs to be painful in order to stop bad behavior Positive Parenting: ■ Lite: ● “Good stuff” ● Warm, sensitive, responsive, involved monitor ■ Strong: ● A child-rearing orientation that is centered around promoting a loving and cooperative relationship, respecting the child. Rather than Time-out, but time-in...