Inglese 1 - Riassunto Marketing e organizzazione di impresa PDF

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Origins of English Historical Development Timeline: -Original inhabitants of Britain (Britons): Celtic-speaking tribes -Roman invasion: Julius Caesar (54-55 BC), Claudius AD43 -Germanic tribes (AD 449): Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Frisians -Vikings: Destruction of Lindisfarne Monastery(793) -Normans: Battle of Hastings(1066)

Placenames -Celtic (London, Glasgow, Cardiff; Regions: Kent; Rivers: Thames) -Anglo-Saxon (Stratford, Portsmouth; Regions: Sussex, East Anglia) -Latin (Lancaster, Stratford, Portsmouth) Old, Early and Modern English Old English 450-1150 Development of English as a spoken language with grammatical conjugations and inflections. First written texts in Old English: -Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (890on) -Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English People (Latin original 731) -Beowulf(975-1010) Middle English 1150-1500 Changes in grammar, progressive simplification of conjugations Changes in spelling and pronunciation through regional variations Changes in vocabulary with progressive introduction of more terms derived from French Eventually the London variant (Chancery English) prevailed, helped by the introduction of the printing press (Caxton, 1476) Best known texts in Middle English: Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales Modern English from 1500 Standardization of grammar spelling and pronunciation that has essentially been continued to today. Most recognized examples of Modern English in written texts are the works of Shakespeare. Towards a ‘Standard English’ Process of standardization involves: Selection ‘Standard’ mostly defined by power, status, public position, class -London –political, economic, social power -Oxford/Cambridge –intellectual influence

-Mostly the Anglo-Saxon model, but some examples from Norse/Viking influence, e.g. does for doeth Acceptance -Spread of model by movement of people (merchants scholars, etc.) -Development of Middle English -Use in literature (e.g. Chaucer, 'Canterbury Tales') -National identity

Elaboration -Expansion and differentiation of vocabulary (Anglo-Saxon, Latin/French) -Latin expanded through Church and Law -London -Printing press (Caxton) -Development of Modern English Codification -Dictionary of the English Language, Johnson(1755) -OED(1928) -Critical Pronouncing Dictionary, Walker(1791) -English Grammar, Lindley Murray(1795) However, disparity between spoken forms and written forms remains Word Origins Anglo-Saxon -Basic vocabulary -Short, mono-syllabic words -Verbs describing basic processes (often irregular) -Comparatives with 'er' -Raw materials (food nouns refer to the animal), simple processes -Stylistically neutral French -More complex vocabulary -Longer, multi-syllabic words -Verbs describing sophisticated processes (often regular) -Comparatives with 'more' -Food nouns refer to the meat -Language of political, military, economic authority, culture Latin/Greek -Specialized vocabulary (semantic fields): religion, law, medicine, science -Perception of difficulty in pronunciation, spelling and understanding -Often used deliberately to impress socially, maintain distance, establish groups/elites, etc. -Some deliberate re-spelling in English to reflect Latin roots: e.g. fact, transport, excite -False friends emerge though different development of words: actually, eventually, premises, sensible, sympathetic New Words

From other languages: •Italian (pizza, zucchini,al fresco) •Indian (bungalow, guru, pashmina, thug) •Japanese(tsunami) •Spanish(siesta) From new areas of activity: •computing and online activities •finance and economics •sports •music •social culture Vocabulary becomes ‘old-fashioned’, antiquated •Asylum –Hospital •Consumption –Tuberculosis •Wireless –Radio •Frock –Dress Neologisms •Selfie, Emoji, Vape, Friend/Unfriend, Brexit, Post-truth Word Frequency •64% of Shorter OED words from French/Latin/Greek •26%fromAnglo-Saxon •4000 most frequent word = 51% Germanic, 48% French/Latin •12 most frequent verbs in Longman's Corpus: say, get, go, know, think, see, make, come, take, want, give, mean •Similar pairs will often have non-semantic differences: e.g. go in/enter; get up/rise; look into/investigate ;book/reserve ‘Standard’ English Other Englishes Varieties of English -‘Standard English’ -British English -General American -World English(es) British English •Queen’s English •Oxford English •BBC English •Received Pronunciation •Estuary English General American English •Northern

•Midland •Southern Pronunciation of North-Midland area taken as General American (as used on main TV networks) Lexical standardization: •Noah Webster, An American Dictionary of the English Language (1828) •Merriam-Webster from 1847 The principal distinction between ‘British’ and ‘American’ is phonological, i.e. the sound of the language, the way that words are pronounced. However, there are also some recognizable differences in: -Grammar: •Use of article •Verb forms •Concordance •Use of Prepositions •Subjunctive forms -Lexis: •Vocabulary •Spelling •Word Stress

Use of the definite article: -She is studying at the university -She is studying at university

-Taken to the hospital -Taken to hospital

-He plays the piano

-This will change in the future

-He plays piano

-This will change in future Verb forms and tenses:

•We have gotten a new car

•We have a new car

•We have bought a new car

•We have (got) a new car

•I do not have any money •I have not (got) any money

•The food smelled good •The food smelt good

•Did you do that already (yet)? No, I did not do it yet •Have you done that already (yet)? No, I have not done it yet Concordance: •The audience is very knowledgeable •The audience are very knowledgeable

•The government has a plan. •The government have a plan

•The public supports the government

•The family lives in London

•The public support the government

•The family live in London

•The majority agrees •The majority agree Prepositions •They appealed the decision

•She prote

•They appealed against the decision

•She prote

•I will write him •I will write to him

•Let’s talk with them tomorrow •Let’s talk to them tomorrow

•You must fill out the form •You must fill in the form Subjunctive: •I suggest that he go to London

•They asked that an enquiry be held

•I suggest that he goes to London.

•They asked to hold an enquiry

•He recommended that she agree the plan •He recommended that she agreed to the plan

•Apartment-Flat •Attorney-lawyer

Vocabulary: •Math-Maths •Mean-Nasty

•Can-Tin •Candy-Sweets •Cookie-Biscuit •Diaper-Nappy •Elevator-Lift

•Movie-Film •Pants-Trousers •Railroad-Railway •Restroom (Bathroom)-Toilet •Sidewalk-Pavement

•Fall-Autumn •Faucet-Tap

•Sneakers-Trainers •Subway-Underground

•Flat (tire)-Flat tyre (puncture) •French fries (Chips)-Chips (Crisps) •Garbage-trash/Rubbish

•TruckVan- lorry •Vacation-Holiday •Zee (‘z’)-Zed (‘z’) •Barrister-solicitor

•Gas-Petrol

Spelling: •organize/ organise •Catalog-Catalogue

•Jewelry-Je •Program-P

•Center/Centre

•Tire-Tyre

•theater/theatre •Color/Colour

•Traveler-Tr •Defense-D

Australian English Australia first colonized from 1788. Originally, served as penal colony. Influence on language primarily from Southern England (and Ireland) New terms relevant to new environment (rural and farming, flora and fauna). Dominated indigenous aboriginal language. From 1970s, immigration also from Asia Main difference to British English in pronunciation: •Cultivated •General •Broad A recognizable variation compared to standard British or American English. Australian Pronunciation Cultivated Australian is, and continues to be, the variety which carries overt prestige. It is the one associated with females, private elite schools, gentility and an English heritage. Broad Australian carries covert prestige and is associated with males, the uneducated, commonness and republicanism. The new dialect is ‘General’ which retains the national identity associated with Broad but which avoids the non-standardism in pronunciation, morphology and syntax associated with uneducated speech wherever English is spoken. New Zealand British sovereignty from 1840 New population mainly settlers from England and Australia Indigenous language (Maori) dominated by English Pronunciation close to Australian English High prestige sometimes associated to British and American English sounds New vocabulary from new flora, fauna, topography New Zealand -Maori Spoken only by few Maori (themselves only a small percentage (12%) of the total population. Primarily characterized by specific vocabulary referring to indigenous life. However, some small grammatical differences may be heard: Maori-speakers often transfer terms and rules from the Maori address system to their English -for example, a three-way distinction in second-person pronouns you (singular), youse(dual), and yousefullas(plural), and address forms such as cuz, sis, bro, aunty, and uncle, which reflect Maori kinship relationships. South African Black African languages Afrikaans spoken by Dutch settlers British control from 1806, but continual competition with Afrikaners English as a lingua franca Now 11 recognized languages in South Africa

Varieties of South African English: •Conservative (very close to RP) •Respectable (more informal with local characteristics) •Extreme (low social prestige, closer to the heritage of white) •Afrikaans English •Black South African English (often a second language) •Coloured and Indian/Asiatic English African English Many varieties influenced by indigenous languages: •Western •Some first language speakers •Many speakers of different pidgin Englishes or creoles •Eastern •Southern Regional changes in pronunciation Grammar particularities: Luggages, advices (countable) Vocabulary reduplication: Quick-quick (very quick) South Asian English English as a 'alternative official language' between the national languages of Hindi (North and Central India) and southern non Indo-European languages English as a 'third official language' between Urdu (Pakistan) and Bengali (Bangladesh (E Pakistan)) English in India Recognised high status in science, technology and even in literature, and for job opportunities Three language formula: The Three Language Formula is a compromise between the demands of the various pressure groups and has been hailed as a masterly –if imperfect –solution to a complicated problem. It seeks to accommodate the interests of group identity (mother tongues and regional languages), national pride and unity (Hindi), and administrative efficiency and technological progress (English). Prescriptive and Descriptive Grammar ‘Types’ of Grammar -Primary grammar: intuitive, unconscious knowledge, understanding and application -Secondary grammar: conscious, learned expertise approximating to primary grammar -Scientific/academic grammar: precise, detailed specification for research and analysis -Pedagogic grammar: for learners (and teachers) of language Regional variations: I have finished already. (BE) I finished already. (AE)

The majority are right. (BE) The majority is right. (AE)

-Written grammar: derived from and applied to written representations of a language -Spoken grammar: derived from and applied to spoken representations of a language -Historical’ grammar:

-‘Contemporary’ grammar:

I dare say he hath erred.

I was like that is well wrong.

-‘Non-standard’ grammar: We was robbed, it weren’t no penalty. You ain’t right. He done it on purpose. -‘Text’ language: Wot U duin 2nite? Description of the structure and/or of the constituent parts of a system (language) used to formulate a communication that has meaning. Constituent analysis:

Building blocks: Constituent parts of the linguistic system. Word order: Order in which the building blocks are placed. Inflections : Particular modifications that the building blocks may undergo All the previous cases are examples of descriptive grammar, which: Describes and illustrates how a language is actually exploited in practice by (both ‘primary’ and ‘secondary’ grammar) users. Recognises that grammar changes over time and will vary in different historical, geographic, social etc. contexts. In contrast, in a prescriptive grammar: Linguistic formulation is defined by rules. There is a ‘right’ and a ‘wrong’ form. However, these rules might be inappropriate to the language system to which they are applied. Right or Wrong? What shall we talk about? We need to fully understand the difference. Hopefully, we can come to some conclusions. We didn’t discover nothing last time. If I was you, I would think again Aspect –Mood –Voice Aspect -Perfect •We have finished the job. •We had finished the job. •We will have finished the job. -Function •Action from a point in time which has an IMPACT on a subsequent -Perfect •you (finish) __________ the job yet? •No, we (not finish) __________ the job yet. •Yes (finish) __________ the job already. -Simple Past •When you (finish) __________? •We (finish) __________ yesterday?

time

-Past Perfect •We (finish already) __________ when they arrived. -Future Perfect •They think they (finish) __________ by tomorrow. -Progressive •We are finishing the job. •We were finishing the job. •We have been finishing the job. •We had been finishing the job. •We will be finishing the job. -Function •Describing a continuous BACKGROUND context accompanying a foreground event •Describing a future event (Present Continuous) -Progressive •What you (do) __________ at the moment? •What you (do) __________ yesterday? •What you (do) __________ at this time tomorrow? •The teacher (speaking) _________, the students (listening) _________. •It (raining) __________ when they arrived. •We (work) __________ on this project tomorrow. Mood -Indicative •I recommend that he does this. •I wish to know this. •I wished to know that. -Function •Stating facts, describing situations, expressing ideas (realis) -Subjunctive •I recommend that he do this. •Let it be. •I wish I knew that. •I wish I had known that -Function •Expressing an unreality (irrealis), a wish to change, the realisation of a possibility -Indicative and Subjunctive •We (wish) __________ to reconsider the proposal. •We wish we (can reconsider) __________ the proposal, but we cannot. •We wish we (reconsider) __________ the proposal, but we did not. •I suggest he (reconsider) __________ the proposal. •If I (know) __________ the answer, I (tell) you. (Indicative) •If I (know) __________ the answer, I (tell) you. (Subjunctive) -Imperative

•Orders, requests •Do this! •Don’t do that!(Don’t you do that!) •Give me a hand, please. •Let me do it. •Invitation, suggestion, recommendation, wish •Do pay attention. •Do come and visit us. •Let’s have lunch. •Drive carefully! •Have a safe journey. -Imperative •Please (complete) __________ the assignment by the end of the week. •Please (not submit) __________ the assignment until you have finished. •__________ the gap! •__________ your head! •(Let) __________ look at a different question. •(Let) __________ me move on to the next question. Voice -Active •They will finish the job tomorrow. •Somebody acquired the company in a secret deal. •The company published the report last year -Passive •The job will be finished tomorrow. •The company was acquired in a secret deal. •The report was published last year. -Function •To shift emphasis to original object •To express a proposition when the original subject is unknown or irrelevant -Active and Passive •Everyone (discuss) __________ the plan. •The plan (discuss) __________ by everyone. •Shakespeare (write) __________ Hamlet. •Hamlet (was) __________ by Shakespeare. •Somebody (steal) __________ by bicycle. •My bicycle (was) __________ by somebody. •John and Jim (prepare already) __________ the presentation for tomorrow. •The presentation (prepare already) __________ for tomorrow by John and Jim. Conditional Forms (Present/Future) -If I have the money, I will go on holiday. -If I have the money, I go on holiday. -If I have received the money by then, I will go on holiday. -If you would wait, I would give you the money to go on holiday. -When I was a younger, if I had the money, I went on holiday

Function •Non-hypothetical •Presentation of a proposition in which the main clause is true if, and only if the If clause is true •Verb times are determined by the intended meaning of the phrase Conditional Forms(Present/Past) -If I had the money, I would/could/might go on holiday. -If I had had the money, I would/could/might have gone on holiday. Function •Hypothetical •Referring either to the present/future or the past •Not true now (present/future) or then (past) •Logically possible (present/future) or impossible. •Verb times are determined systematically Examination type questions Which aspect(s) is/are used in the following sentence? I have been working all day. 1.Perfect 2.Progressive 3.Perfect and Progressive 4.Simple and Perfect Answer: What is the key characteristic of the Perfect aspect? Answer: Explain the difference between: -I wish to know. -I wish I knew. Answer: Explain situations in which the passive voice is used. What are the main semantic values that the passive voice offers? Answer: Future time: Definitions English grammar provides a number of ways to indicate the future nature of an occurrence. Some argue that English does not have a future tense—that is, a grammatical form that always indicates futurity—nor does it have a mandatory form for the expression of futurity. However, there are several generally accepted ways to indicate futurity in English, and some of them—particularly those that use will or shall are frequently described as future tense. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_tense Tense (in English) consists of only two options, as mentioned above: past and present. For lack of a special future tense, the language must resort to a number of different

constructions to express future time. "[T]he future tense has a different status from the other tenses. Rather than being a form of the verb, it is expressed by the modal auxiliary will. It's no accident that the future shares its syntax with words for necessity (must), possibility (can, may, might), and moral obligation (should, ought to), because what will happen is conceptually related to what must happen, what can happen, what should happen, and what we intend to happen. The word will itself is ambiguous between future tense and an expression of determination, and its homonyms show up in free will, strong-willed, and to will something to happen. The same ambiguity between the future and the intended can be found in an other marker for the future tense, going to or gonna. It's as if the language is affirming the ethos that people have the power to make their own futures.” Ways to refer to Future time -Simple Present: a scheduled, often repeated event •The company board meets tomorrow at 3.00 pm. •Interest is paid at the end of each month. -Present Continuous: plans and arrangements •We are introducing new software in the planning department. •The managing director is arriving this afternoon. -Be to/Be about to: realization of a previous decision •Twenty-five junior managers are to be promoted next week. •The company is about to make a major investment. -Going to/Planning to/Intending to/Expecting to: a programmed objective that is likely to happen •A new headquarters is going to be built next year. We are planning to expand into Asia. •We are intending to recruit 100 new staff. •We are expecting to make a substantial profit. -Hope to/Mean to/Would like to: a desire for the future •We hope to reduce costs considerably. •We mean to fight the hostile takeover bid. •We would like to set up a joint venture. -May, Might: indication of level of pr...