PSY121 Chapter 14 & 15 - Google Docs PDF

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Download PSY121 Chapter 14 & 15 - Google Docs PDF

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Chapter 14: Growing and Developing Development - physiological , behavioural, cognitive, and social changes that occur throughout human life guide both by genetic predispositions(nature) and environmental influences (nurture) Lifespan (7 levels) - Infancy - Toddlerhood - Childhood - Adolescence - Emerging adulthood - Early adulthood - Middle adulthood - Maturity

Infancy - The development stage that begins at birth and continues to one year of age Conception - Occurs when an egg from the mother is fertilized by a sperm from the father - Begins with ovulation (midway through the menstrual cycle and is aided by the release of a complex combination of hormones) - Which is when an ovum, or an egg (the largest cell in the human body), which has been stored in one of the mother’s two ovaries, matures and is released into the fallopian tube - Egg from mother fertilized by sperm of father within 1 or 2 days of egg’s maturity - One of the up to 500 million sperms deposited by the man’s ejaculation, which are travelling up the fallopian tube, may fertilize the egg. - As the sperm reach and penetrate the egg in the fallopian tube, they release enzymes that attack the outer jelly like egg’s coating, in order to be the first one to enter the egg - As soon as one of the sperm enters the egg’s coating, the egg immediately responds by both blocking out all other challengers and at the same time pulling in the single successful sperm.

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Zygote created with ½ of 23 chromosomes from mother and ½ of 23 chromosomes from the father - a fertilized ovum Zygote travels down fallopian tube to the uterus - Fewer than half of zygotes survive beyond this earliest stage of life Zygote attaches to wall of uterus - then called embryo - The cells continue to divide: the original two cells become four, those four becomes 8, and so on, until there are thousands (and eventually trillions) of cells - The cells soon begin to differentiate, each taking on a seperate function - The earliest, is between the cells on the inside of the zygote, which will begin to form the developing human being, - Cells outside, which will form the protective environment that will provide support for the new life throughout the pregnancy The embryonic phase in first 6 weeks, the major internal and external organs are formed (those first 6 weeks, where the pregnancy is usually not detected by the mother) - While the inner layer of embryonic cells is busy forming the embryo itself, the outer layer is forming the surrounding protective environment that will help the embryo survive the pregnancy 3 major Structures for Embryo Survival - Amniotic sac - The fluid-filled reservoir in which the embryo (soon to be known as a fetus)will live until birth, and which acts as both a cushion against outside pressure and as a temperature regulator - Placenta - An organ that allows the exchange of nutrients between the embryo and the mother, while at the same time filtering out harmful material. - The filtering occurs through a thin membrane that separates the mother’s blood from the blood of the fetus, allowing them to share only the material that is able to pass through the filter - Umbilical cord - Links the embryo to the placenta and transfers all material to the fetus - Thus the placenta and umbilical cord protect the fetus from many foreign agents in the mother’s system that might otherwise pose a threat

Fetus Embryo to fetus

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9 weeks after conception, the embryo becomes a fetus - The defining characteristic of the fetal stage is growth - The fetus has approximately six months to go from weighing less than an ounce to weighing an average of 6 to 8 pounds - Takes human characteristics: moving (by the 3rd month the fetus is able to curl and open its fingers, form fists, and wiggle its toes), sleeping, early forms of swallowing, breathing - Develops senses : becoming able to distinguish tastes and respond to sounds - Develops preferences: prefers mother’s voice to that of a stranger, language heard in the womb over other languages and even the kinds of foods that the mother ate during the pregnancy - By the end of the 3rd month of pregnancy, the sexual organs are visible - The prenatal development is very complex, about 45% of pregnancies end up in miscarriages (often without the mother knowing) Teratogens - Substances that can harm the fetus - Caused by substances that get past the amniotic sac and placenta - Includes - General environmental factors: air pollution and radiation - Environment in which the mother is living - Cigarettes (reduces blood flow for both the mother and child and can cause a fetus to be born severely underweight) - Alcohol - Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)- a condition caused by maternal drinking that can lead to numerous detrimental developmental effects - Drugs - Also anxiety and stress (mother’s social and emotional wellbeing) - Cortisol can pass the placenta, in which can go to the baby - Does not always harm the fetus, but likely to do so when they occur in larger amounts, for longer periods, and during the more sensitive phases of pregnancy (as when the fetus is growing most rapidly) - The first 6 weeks where the fetus embryo develops the major internal and external organs - Children born into homelessness/ poverty are more likely to have mothers who are malnourished; suffer from domestic violence, stress and other psychological problems; and who smoke and abuse drugs (thus more likely exposed to teratogens - Ideal situation for the mother: - Minimal anxiety, relaxed, more content - passing oxytocin to the baby, giving comfort and soothing while the internal, as well as when the baby is delivered - Extreme/ prolonged stressed mothers; - The more cortisol is produced (which can go through the placenta), exposing the baby to more cortisol (causing stress patterns in the baby, while inside), making the baby harder to soothe when the baby’s born. Newborn - Considered full term at 36 weeks onwards, usually born around the 38th week

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Past 42 week, considered overdue - Increase placenta failure after 42 weeks (some cultures induce birth during this) Newborn reflexes (pg 78) - Tested at birth

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Note: there are reflexes that we’re tend to be born with, but also development and behaviour - As knowledge and abilities increase so are the reflexes (behaviour and learning is active) - Breast crawl reflex- within an hour or two after birth if the baby is put in the mother’s stomach/ close to her chest, skin to skin, baby will crawl up the mother and find the breast Attachment Bowlby - 60% of the time - Developed the idea of attachment, that it’s an innate and evolutionary response - That infants develops important emotional bonds (between the infant and caregiver) - Did his work in orphanages after WWII - Noticed that the children were awfully sickly, often emotionally delayed and unmotivated - Need for proximity - Newborns are really vulnerable and being close to its mother is its best way of surviving - Caregiver used as a ‘safe base’ - Refuge from danger, or anything that can frighten or upset the child - If an infant’s caregiver is to move, the child would either protest or will attempt to follow Ainsworth - Proposed various forms of attachment

- Idea that all mothers or infants responds in the same way Strange Situation - A measurement attachment in young children in which the child’s behaviours are assessed in a situation in which the caregiver and a stranger move in out of the environment - 8 stages (3 mins each), how the baby responded shows how attached the baby is Attachment Theory Secure attachment (60% of children has - Caregiver available physically and emotionally (play/ interact with the child) ↳Caregiver is responsive and consistent (the child is not ignored or redirected) ↳Child can engage freely - Proximal development- mother/ caregiver reaching for the further stage of that child’s development - Picking up the cue brought up from the child, building on it and extending it - Teaching that exploring is good and its rewarded (likely influence motivation/ how social) - Idea that adults are considered safe (needs are accounted for) - Important to have this 60% of the time, in order to be a “good enough” mother, for the child to have a secure attachment Insecure attachment (40% of children) - Avoidant (sometimes called insecure-avoidant) (20-25%) - Child may be left to cry, not responded quickly, not soothed enough, not played/ stimulated enough - Does not make the caregiver bad - If the caregiver is overwhelmed/ overloaded, has less capacity to respond - Strange situation - Mary Ainsworth - Will avoid or ignore the mother, showing little emotion when the mother departs or returns - The child may run away from the mother when she approaches - The child will not explore very much regardless of who’s there, and the stranger will not be treated much differently from the mother - Heart rate and cortisol levels seems to still be the same as babies that openly show their distress - Increase heart rate and cortisol levels - In the surface is coping well, beneath it they’re not -

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Ambivalent (sometimes called insecure-resistant) (15-20%) - Sometimes called anxious attachment, Intermittent care - At times caregivers are available, sometimes they’re not

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The child tend to alter their behaviours to accommodate them - Infants learn when these windows hours of when they were tended to, and alters their behaviour to gain this interaction - Taking opportunities when they’re in their mother’s or cargiver’s arms - Caregivers being less attentive - Distracted by other elements (other children, manage work or life) - Thinking about the situations that they’re in - The infant can learn clingy and that protesting to get attention - By doing so (think about the mother-child interaction)has an effect on the mother and how she sees the child (demanding or never satisfied) - Can be seen as demanding and never satisfied, likely can have an impact on the relationship and seem as less rewarding, thus might also affecting the caregiver's availability - Strange situation - Wary about the situation in general, particularly the stranger, and stays close or even clings to the mother rather than the toys - When the mother leaves, the child is extremely distressed and is ambivalent when she returns - The child may rush to the mother but then fail to cling to her when she picks up the child Disorganized (3-5%) - Extremes of lacking response and consistency - More likely to cause serious damage to the emotional development of the child - This is where the caregiver is actively hostile - Physical and emotional abuse and violence - Develop a lack of trusting adults, little expectations that adults will be there to help care or soothe and that adults are not trustworthy - Having this type of relationship (absence of an appropriate relationship) up until the age of 3, makes it very hard to repair the damage - Considering the idea of an appropriate relationship- it can be helpful to have others that are present - Not looking into just one individual but as a team, otherwise the child could form a schema (patterns of knowledge in long-term memory- that helps them remember, organize and respond to information) for the idea of people being not trustworthy etc. - Strange situation - Seems to have no consistent way of coping with stress of the strange situation - The child may cry during the separation but avoid the mother when she returns, or the child may approach the mother but then freeze or fall to the floor

Predictor of adult attachment style

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But still depends on the person and the person’s relationship with the other person - Can also shift this attachment style, by having an available adult to you before adolescence - Pop psych: respond to children, idea that if you go to the child directly when they cry, it makes them spoiled - No, respond to the baby as much as you can - Up until 18 months, an infant does not have the brain capacity to manipulate Infant Brain Development and Attachment Dr. Schore - 30% of the time - Has the technology to prove the concept of technology - First 1000 days of life, the idea that the brain more than double its size in the first 2 years in life, and that this early maturation of the brain require social experiences - That attachment to a caregiver helps to shape the emotional ride of the brain - To prove attachment shapes the right side of the brain - Critical for brain development - Attachment promotes self-regulation - Allows for more complex relational interactions, that happens between the infant and social environment - Essential task of first-year - To allow for more complex relational interactions - Where the caregiver acts as an external emotional regulator - Communicates positive and negative emotional states to caregiver so caregiver can up and down regulate - Importance of caregiver being predictable,consistent and emotionally stable Brain Development and Attachment - Right brain dominants in infants - Dominant for visual emotional information; recognition of face; perception of expression; tone of voice - Left brain dominant from 3 ½ years - Mothers are right brain dominant, during pregnancy and the first year of the child’s life - Perception of infants’ facial and vocal expressions - Equally sensitive to laughing and crying, to regulate the positive and negative emotional states - For the baby’s development, the mother being the external emotional regulator - Mother’s sensitive to minimize negative affect and maximize positive affect - Equally important for the positive and negative development of the child - Idea of rupture and repair (Seigel) - Misreading emotional state (misattunement) then trying again - Idea that you keep on trying even though it was wrong the first time Vid- Still Face Experiment: Dr. Edward Tronick - Mother playing with the baby - Told the mother to not respond to the baby

- The baby feels the stress that the mother portrays The good, the bad, and the ugly - Good; the normal stuff that goes on with the parents and the child - Bad; if something bad happened the infant knows that the parents are coming, and starts playing with the infants - Ugly; where the child was not given a chance to get back to the good - Pleasure and interest indications of secure attachment - Importance of play in infancy and toddlerhood - Mutual play - When seeing a child, we tend to change the way we interact with them (both) - After 1st year mobility increase and so does the feeling of pride and joy - 2nd year caregiver acts a socialization agent (2) - Teaches the baby what’s safe and what’s not - Sense of miscommunication, thus Shame introduced - Interactive repair - Importance of ‘father’s’ play - Tends to be more arousing/ important 8 stages of man (Neurocentric/ wester view) Erickson:Trust vs. Mistrust - 0-12/18 months - Important events - Feeding, sleeping, attachment and teething - Outcome: develop a sense of trust and reliability to adults, care and affection - Basic virtue; trust and optimism - Either develops the trust or mistrust Erickson:Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt - 1-3 years - Important events - Walking talking, muscle control etc. - Outcome: develop a sense of personal control over physical skills - Basic virtue: use of freedom and self-restraint Piaget - Developed stages of the cognitive development - Swiss psychologist that administered IQ tests, being fascinated with how certain ages gets certain questions wrong Piaget: Sensorimotor - 0-2 years - Thinking is related to our senses, thinking is developed through physical aspects - Act on the environment and learn object permanence - Idea that if something is out of sight, they know that it's still there, just not have the capacity to look for it - Learn through reflexes, sense, movement Childhood - The period between infancy and the onset of puberty - Age 3 to Puberty -

- Rapid changes in cognitive growth - Development of self-concept - Shifts in socialization Piaget:Preoperational - Ages 2-7 - Development language - Learn 200 to 2000 more words - Think logically in one direction - Language, signs, pictures etc. - Use symbols egocentric - This age thinks that what the experience is what everyone experience - Thinks that their perspective is what everyone’s perspective Piaget:Concrete Operational - Ages 6/7-11 - Mental tasks tied to concrete objects and situations - Organized into categories or series - Can reverse operations - Think of series of steps and reverse it - More sociocentric Examples of classification - Concrete operational - The types (paper, sticks together, writing objects) - Late preoperational - Colour - Early preoperational - Utilizing the objects - paper/pencil/ pen - poster/ tack/ tape - These tend to have cultural differences Development of Self-Concept - Knowledge schema that contains information about us such as our belief about our personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals and roles - Still have cultural differences - 18 months - Recognize self in the mirror - 2 years - Aware of what they’re sex are - 4 years - Give self-description (physical feature) - 6 years - Understand basic emotions and concepts of traits - Make social comparison - Not just limited to humans Socialization and Play - Friendships qualities cultivated and explored - Social skills develop

- Play becomes internalized - Elements of sharing, exploring feelings, humour, justice Erickson: Initiative vs. Guilt - 3-5 years - Important events - Exploration and play - Outcome: ability to initiate own activities vs inadequacy to be one’s own - Basic virtue: Pursue own activities and goals Erickson: Industry vs. Inferiority - 6-11 years - Important event - School - New social and academic demand - Outcome: cope with new demands vs. sense of inferiority at understanding or organizing - Basic vertue: competency in intellectual, social and physical skills Adolescents - The years between the onset of puberty and the beginning of adulthood - Puberty to 18 - Bodies grow: sexual and reproductive organs become fully functional - Develop more advanced pattern of reasoning - Forge own identity - Experimentation Puberty - Developmental period where hormonal changes cause rapid physical alterations in the body to reach sexual maturity - Begins with pituitary gland stimulates hormones - Release of these triggers primarily sex characteristics - Secondary sex characteristics also develop - Puberty but not directly to reproduction - Voice changes/ hair growth Major milestones and Timings - Menarche - The first menstrual - Early maturing females - teased/ sexual harrased/ have emotional problems, self image high rates of depression/ - Seminarche - Sexual maturing of males - Early maturing males - Social advantages stronger/ taller/ much more popular - Delinquency and antisocial behaviour - This if affected by genetics, diets and even body fat level Cognitive development - Brain continues to form neural connection - Prefrontal cortex continues to develop

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Not fully develop until 20’s More likely to engage in risks/ to be influenced by emotion of the moment and others - Myelin continues to grow - To ease/speed up connections - Peak in late adolescent and emerging adulthood Social Cognition - Adolescent Egocentrism - The imaginary audience - Others must be thinking about “me” - Social media exacerbate such ideas, increase self-consciousness - The personal fable - One is unique - “No one understand me” - Optimistic bias - Idea that others are as susceptible as them - We continue to have it, but its not as dominant - Not unique to just adulesnsce Not at powerful as adults Piaget: Formal Operations - Ages 11/12 onwards - Abstract thinking - Coordination of multiple variables - Metacognition - What you think of others/ what other thinks of you - Self aware - Hypothetical-deductive reasoning ability - Can affect problem/ systematically process how to solve that problem Erikson: Identity vs. Role confusion - 12-18 years - Important events - Peers/ social relationships - Outcome: seeing self as unique and integrat...