Sammanfattning och begrepp på Holt engelska PDF

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Chapter(3(

Evolution,*genes,*environment*and*behaviour** * Why(should(psychologists(study(evolution(and(genes?( - Physiology(is(intimately(related(to(cognition(and(behaviour.(There(can(be(no( thinking(and(behaviour(without(the(physical(substrates(of(brain(and(body;(and( there(can(be(no(brain(and(body(without(genes.(( ( Behavioural*genetics* A(field(of(psychological(science(dedicated(to(investigating(how(genes(and(the( environmental(factors(interact(during(the(course(of(development(so(as(to(affect( behaviour.(( ( Evolutionary*psychology* A(field(of(psychological(science(that(investigates(the(evolutionary(origins(of(various( psychological(traits.(( ( Evolution*(biological)* Gradual(change(over(time(in(organic(life(from(one(form(into(another( ( Natural*selection* Characteristics(that(increase(the(likelihood(of(survival(and(reproduction(within(a( particular(environment(will(be(preserved(in(the(population(and(therefore(become(more( frequent.(Darwin(was(the(first(person(to(suggest(this(as(a(viable(mechanism(by(which( evolution(could(occur.(The(natural(selection(process(does(not(operate(for(the(good(of(the( group(or(species,(cruel(selection(process;(survival(of(the(fittest.(( ( Mutations* Random(events(and(accidents(in(gene(reproduction(during(the(division(of(cells(( ( Blending*theory* Suggests(that(parental(traits(are(blended(together(like(mixing(white(and(red(to(produce( pink.(The(problem(was(that(this(theory(was(incompatible(with(natural(selection;( eventually(all(variability(would(have(been(eliminated.(( ( ( Gregor*Mendel*(ca.*1860)* Worked(out(the(laws(of(genetic(inheritance(by(conducting(elegant(experiments(on(pea( plants.((( ( Dominant** The(particular(characteristic(that(it(controls(will(be(displayed( ( Recessive** The(characteristics(will(not(show(up(unless(the(partner(gene(inherited(from(other(parent( is(also(recessive.(( ( (

Allele( Alternative(forms(of(a(gene(that(produce(different(characteristics.(Mendel(proposed(that( hereditu(factors((genes)(must(come(in(double(doses,(each(called(an(allele.(The(particular( combination(of(dominant(and(recessive(alleles(determines(the(outwardly(expressed( characteristiv(of(the(organism.(( ( Homozygous* Organisms(that(posses(the(same(type(of(allele(for(a(trait,(either(two(dominant(or(two( recessive.( ( Heterozygous* Organisms(that(posses(different(allele(for(a(trait,(one(dominant(and(one(recessive( ( Genotype* The(specific(and(complete(genetic(make-up(of(the(individual( ( Phenotype* The(individual’s(outward(observable(characteristics( ( Genes* Functional(segments(of(the(long(molecule(deoxyribonucleic((acid((DNA)(that(code(for( proteins(–(how(they(are(manufactured(and(when/where(in(the(body(they(will(be(made( ( Chromosome* A(single(or(double(stranded(structure(comprised(of(proteins(and(deoxyribonucleic(acid( (DNA)( ( Somatic*cell* All(cells(that(do(not(contain(reproductive(cells(( Diploid*number* A(cell(consisting(of(two(sets(of(chromosomes( ( Gametes* Sex(cells,(eggs(and(sperm( Haploid*number* Half(the(number(of(chromosomes(found(in(a(gamete( ( Zygote* A(fertilized(egg(containing(46(pairs(of(chromosomes.(One(of(each(pair(comes(from(the( father(and(its(complementary(pair(from(the(mother.(The(fact(that(there(are( complementary(pairs(relates(to(alleles.(Each(gene(is(represented(twice((i.e.(as(alleles)(at( the(same(locus(on(each(of(the(chromosome(pairs.(( ( Monogenic*traits* Conditions(or(traits(based(upon(the(influence(of(one(gene.(( ( Polygenic*transmission* When(a(number(of(gene(pairs(combine(their(influences(to(create(a(single(phenotypic( trait.((

Inherited*behavioural*adaptations** Traits(that(organisms(are(born(with(that(help(promote(their(chances(of(survival(and( reproductive(success( ( Fixed*action*pattern*(FAP)* An(unlearned(response(automatically(triggered(by(a(particular(stimuli.( ( Releasing*stimuli* External(stimuli(that(trigger(fixed(action(patterns((FAP).( ( Superstimulus* An(exaggerated(version(of(a(releasing(stimulus(tat(triggers(a(stronger(response(than(tha( naturalistic(model.(( ( Shared*environment* The(people(who(reside(in(these(environments(experience(many(of(their(features(in( common.(( ( Unshared*environment* Experiences(that(are(unique(to(us.(( ( Behavioural*genetics* How(heredity(and(environmental(factors(influence(psychological(characteristics( ( Degree*of*relatedness* The(number(of(genes(we(share(with(others(by(direct(common(descent( ( Concordance* Co-occurance.(Överensstämmelse,(sammanfallning( ( Adoption*study* People(who(were(adopted(early(in(life(are(compared(on(some(characteristic(both(with( their(biological(parents,(with(whom(they(share(genetic(endowment,(and(with(their( adoptive(parents,(with(whom(they(share(no(genes.(( ( Twin*studies* Compare(trait(similarities(in(identical(and(fraternal(twins.(Compare(trait(similarities(in( identical(twins(raised(apart.(( ( Concordance*rates* Statistical(expression(of(the(probability(that(two(individuals(with(shared(genes(will( share(a(particular(trait(to(the(same(degree.(( ( Heritability*coefficient* Estimates(the(extent(to(which(the(differences,(or(variation,(in(a(specific(phenotypic( characteristic(within(a(group(of(people(can(be(attributed(to(their(differing(genes.( ( ( (

Heritability*of*intelligence* Genotype(accounts(for(only(50(to(70(%(of(the(IQ(variation(among(the(individual(in( studies(presented.(This(provides(a(strong(argument(for(the(contribution(of( environmental(factors(to(intelligence.(These(can(be(such(as(socioeconomic(levels,(access( to(books(and(computers,(educational(experiences(etc.(( ( Heritability*of*personality** Between(40(and(50(%(of(the(personality(variations(among(people(included(in(studies( presented(are(attributable(to(genotype(differences.(Although(personality(characteristics( do(not(show(as(high(a(level(of(heritability(as(intelligence,(it(is(clear(that(genetic(factors( account(for(a(significant(amount(of(personality(difference.(Shared(family(environment( seems(to(have(little(to(no(impact(on(the(development(of(personality(traits,(whereas( individual(experiences(are(far(more(important(environmental(determinants.(( ( Reaction*range( The(range(of(possibilities(–(the(upper(and(lower(limits(–(that(the(genetic(code(allows.( Genetic(endowment(is(believed(to(create(a(range(of(possibilities(within(which( environment(exerts(its(effect(over(where(the(person(falls(within(these(genetically( determined(boundaries.(( ( Genes*can*influence*the*environment(in(tree(ways:(Influence(aspects(of(parentproduced(environment,(influence(responses(evoked(from(others((see(evocative( influence(below),(influence(self(selection(of(compatible(environments.(( ( Evocative*influence* A(child’s(genetically(influenced(behaviours(may(evoke(certain(responses(from(others.(( ( Epigenetics* Study(the(changes(in(gene(expression(due(to(environmental(factors(and(independent(of( the(DNA.(Alterations(in(the(phenotype(or(gene(expression(due(to(mechanisms(other(than( changes(in(the(underlying(DNA(sequence.(( ( Knock-out*procedure** Where(a(function(of(a(gene(is(removed,(or(eliminated( ( Knock-in*procedure** Where(a(new(gene(is(inserted(into(an(animal(at(embryonic(stage( ( Genetic*screening* The(ability(to(analyse(people’s(genotypes,(even(before(the(birth(of(a(child((genetic(testing( of(embryos).(Raises(both(practical(and(ethical(issues.(( ( Adaptations* Physical(or(behavioural(changes(that(allow(organisms(to(meet(recurring(environmental( challenges(to(their(survival,(thereby(increasing(their(reproductive(ability.(( ( (

Kin*selection( An(evolutionary(strategy(in(which(behaviours(are(selected(which(favour(the( reproductive(success(of(an(organism’s(relatives,(even(if(at(a(cost(to(that(organism’s(own( survival(and(reproduction.( ( Reciprocal*altruism* A(behaviour(in(an(organism(which(reduces(its(fitness(to(survive(and(reproduce(while( increasing(another(organism’s(fitness,(undertaken(with(the(expectation(that(the(favour( will(be(returned(later.(( ( Sexual*strategies*theory/parental*investment*theory* Mating(strategies(and(preferences(reflect(inherited(tendencies,(shaped(over(the(ages(in( response(to(different(types(of(adaptive(problems(that(men(and(women(faced.(( ( Social*structure*theory* Men(and(women(display(different(mating(preferences(not(because(nature(impels(them( to(do(so,(but(because(society(guides(them(into(different(social(roles.(( ( Evolutionary*personality*theory* Looks(for(the(origin(of(presumably(universal(personality(traits(in(the(adoptive(demands( of(our(species’(evolutionary(history.(( ( Strategic*pluralism* The(idea(that(multiple(–(even(contradictory(–(behavioural(strategies(might(be(adoptive( in(vertain(enironments(and(would(therefore(be(maintained(through(natural(selection.( Different(traits(are(advantageous(in(different(contexts.(( ( (

Chapter(4(

The*brain*and*behaviour* * The*nervous*system* The(body’s(control(centre.(Controls(all(bodily(functions(via(electrical(impulses(and( neurotransmitters.(( ( Neurons* The(functional(building(blocks(of(the(nervous(system.(Cells(which(transmit(the(electrical( activity(which(underlies(psychological(processes.(( ( Glial*cell* From(the(greek(for(“glue”.(Cells(surrounding(neurons,(holding(them(in(place,(providing( nutrients(neurons(need(and(isolating(toxins(that(would(harm(the(neuron.(( ( Synapse* A(connection(between(neurons.(( ( Sensory*neurons( Carry(input(messages(from(the(sense(organs(to(the(spinal(cord(and(brain.( ( Motor*neurons* Transmit(output(impulses(from(the(brain(and(spinal(cord(to(the(body’s(muscles(and( organs.( ( Interneurons* Perform(connective(or(associative(functions(within(the(nervous(system.(( ( Peripheral*nervous*system* Contains(all(the(neural(structures(that(lie(outside(the(brain(and(spinal(cord( ( Somativ*nervous*system* Consists(of(sensory(neurons(that(are(specialized(to(transmit(messages(from(the(eyes,( ears(and(other(sensory(receptors,(and(motor(neurons(that(send(messages(from(the(brain( and(spinal(cord(to(the(muscles(that(control(our(voluntary(movements.(( ( Autonomic*nervous*system* Senses(the(body’s(internal(functions(and(controls(the(glands(and(the(smooth( (involuntary)(muscles(that(form(the(heart,(the(blood(vessels,(and(the(lining(of(the( stomach(and(intestines.(( ( Sympathetic*nervous*system* Has(an(activation(or(arousal(function,(and(it(tends(to(act(as(a(total(unit.( ( Parasympathetic*nervous*system* Is(far(more(specific(in(its(opposing(actions,(affecting(one(of(a(few(organs(at(a(time.(In( general,(it(slows(down(body(processes(and(maintains(a(state(of(tranquillity.(( ( *

Homeostasis* A(delicately(balances(or(constant(internal(state( ( Central*nervous*system* Contains(the(brain(and(the(spinal(cord,(which(connects(most(parts(of(the(peripheral( nervous(system(with(the(brain.(

Spinal*reflexes* Simple(stimulus-response(sequences(that(can(be(triggered(at(the(level(of(the(spinal(cord( without(any(involvement(of(the(brain((retracting(your(finger(from(a(hot(flame).(( ( Grey*matter:*Neuron(cell(bodies.(White*matter:(The(axon(of(neurons* ( Dendrites* Specialized(receiving(units(like(antennae(that(collect(messages(from(neighbouring( neurons(and(send(them(on(the(the(cell(body.(( Axon* Conducts(electrical(impulses(away(from(the(cell(body(tho(other(neurons,(muscles(or( glands.(( ( Resting*potential* Internal(difference(of(around(70(millivolts((between(the(inside(of(the(outside(of(the(cell)( ( Action*potential* Electrical(shift(across(the(neural(membrane,(which(lasts(about(a(millisecond(and( propagates(electrical(signals(down(an(axon.(( ( Absolute*refractory*period* Period(during(which(the(membrane(is(not(excitable(and(cannot(discharge(another( impulse.( (

Graded*potentials* Changes(in(the(negative(resting(potential(that(do(not(reach(the(-50(millivolt(action( potential(threshold.((

( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (

( ( ( ( ( Myelin*sheath* A(whitish,(fatty(insulation(layer(derived(from(glial(cells(during(development( ( Synaptic*cleft* A(tiny(gap(between(the(axon(terminal(and(the(next(neuron.( ( Neurotransmitters* Chemical(substances(that(carry(messages(across(the(synaptic(cleft(to(other(neurons,( muscles(of(glands( ( Synaptic*vesicles* Chambers(within(the(axon(terminals( ( Receptor*sites* Large(protein(molecules(embedded(in(the(receiving(neuron(cell’s(membrane( (

( (

Re-uptake* The(transmitter(molecules(are(taken(back(into(the(presynaptic(axon(terminals( ( Neuromodulators* Have(a(widespread(and(generalized(influence(on(synaptic(transmission,(whereas(most( neurotransmitters(have(their(excitatory/inhibitory(effect(only(on(specific(neurons(that( have(receptors(for(them.(( ( Neuropsychology* The(study(of(the(functions(of(the(brain(by(investigating(the(effects(of(brain(damage(on( mental(functions.(( ( Neuropsychological*tests* Neuropsychologists(use(a(variety(of(neuropsychological(tests(to(measure(verbal(and( non-verbal(behaviours(of(people(who(ma(have(suffered(brain(damage(through(accident( or(disease.(( ( (

Dissociation( A(difference(in(performance(between(two(tasks,(for(example(if(a(person(with(a(particular( brain(damage(performs(well(on(verbal(comprehension(but(poorly(on(speech(one(can( draw(the(conclusion(that(the(damaged(area(is(related(to(speech,(but(not(to(verbal( comprehension.(How(neuropsychologists(draw(inferences(about(how(brain(functions( are(related(to(one(another(in(the(brain.(( ( Wernicke’s*aphasia* Results(from(damage(in(the(temporal(lobe((Wernicke’s(area),(and(is(primarily( manifested(as(difficulties(with(speech(comprehension.( ( Broca’s*aphasia* Results(from(damage(in(the(frontal(lobe((Broca’s(area)(and(is(primarily(manifested(as( difficulties(with(the(production(of(speech.(( ( ( Eloctroencephalography*(EEG)* Measures(the(avtivity(of(large(groups(of(neurons(through(a(series(of(large(electrodes( placed(on(the(scalp( ( Diffusion*tensor*imaging*(DTI)* Mesures(how(water(molecules(diffuse(in(tissue( ( Magnetic*resonance*imaging*(MRI)* Creates(images(based(on(how(atoms(in(living(tissue(respond(to(a(magnetic(pulse( delivered(by(the(device.(( ( Functional*MRI*(fMRI)* Can(produce(pictures(of(blood(flow(in(the(brain(taken(less(than(a(second(apart.( ( Positron-emission*tomographys*scans*(PET-scan)* Measure(brain(activity,(including(metabolism,(blood(flow(and(neurotransmitter(activity.( Radioactive(form(of(glucose(injected.(( ( Functional*near-infrared*spectroscopy*(fNIRS)* By(shining(near-infrared(light(into(the(brain(and(measuring(the(ways(in(which(it(is( reflected,(fNRIS(can(tell(us(about(which(parts(of(the(brain(are(using(most(oxygen.(( ( Transcranial*magnetic*stimulation*(TMS)* Electrical(stimulation(of(targeted(part(of(the(brain(via(magnetic(pulses(sent(from(an( electromagnetic(coil.( ( Transcranial*direct*current*stimulation*(TDCS)* Electrical(stimulation(of(the(brain(by(applying(a(low(current(to(the(scalp.(( ( Hindbrain* The(lowest(and(most(primitive(level(of(the(brain( ( (

Brain*stem( Supports(vital(life(functions( ( Medulla* Plays(an(important(role(in(vital(body(functions(such(as(heart(rate(and(respiration.(( ( Pons( Lies(just(above(the(medulla(and(relays(sensory(information(between(the(cerebral(cortex( and(the(cerebellum.( ( Cerebellum* Concerned(primarily(with(muscular(movement(coordination,(but(also(plays(a(role(in( learning(and(memory.( ( Midbrain* Contains(clusters(of(sensory(and(motor(neurons( ( Reticular*formation* Acts(as(a(kind(of(sentry,(both(alerting(higher(centres(of(the(brain(that(messages(are( coming(and(then(either(blocking(those(messages(or(allowing(them(to(go(forward.(( ( Forebrain* The(brain’s(most(recently(evolved(portion( ( Cerebrum* The(most(superior(part(of(the(forebrain(comprising(the(cerebral(cortex(and(several(more( central(structures.(( ( Thalamus* Has(sometimes(been(likened(to(a(switchboard(that(organizes(inputs(from(sensory(organs( and(routes(them(to(the(appropriate(areas(of(the(brain.(( * Hypothalamus* Plays(a(major(role(in(many(aspects(of(motivation(and(emotion,(including(sexual( behaviour,(temperature(regulation,(sleeping,(eating,(drinking(and(aggression.(( ( Limbic*system* Helps(coordinate(behaviours(needed(to(satisfy(motivational(and(emotional(urges(that( arise(in(the(hypothalamus.(It(is(also(involved(in(memory.(( ( Hippocampus* Involved(in(forming(and(retrieving(memories.( ( Amygdala* Underlies(emotional(behaviours,(particularly(those(linked(to(aggression(and(fear.( ( Cerebral*cortex* 0.63(cm(thick(sheet,(consisting(primarily(of(grey(matter.(( (

Motor*cortex* Controls(the(600(or(more(muscles(involved(in(voluntary(body(movements.(( ( Somatosensory*cortex* Recieves(sensory(input(that(gives(rise(to(our(sensations(of(heat,(touch(and(cold,(and(to( our(senses(of(balance(and(body(movement((kinaestesis).(( ( Association*cortex* Involved(in(many(imoortant(mental(functions,(including(perception,(language(and( thought.(( ( Prefrontal*cortex* Located(just(behind(the(forehead,(the(seat(of(the(so-called(executive(functions((mental( strategic(planning(and(impulse(control).(( ( Corpus*callosum* A(neural(bridge(consisting(of(white(matter(tracts(that(acts(as(a(major(communication( link(between(the(two(hemispheres(and(allow(them(to(function(together.(( ( Lateralization* The(relatively(greater(localization(of(a(function(in(one(hemisphere(or(the(other.(( ( Aphasia** The(partial(or(total(loss(of(the(ability(to(communicate.(( ( Neural*plasticity* The(ability(of(neurons(and(brain(areas(and(networks(to(change(in(structure(and(function.(( ( Neurogenesis* The(production(of(new(neurons(in(the(nervous(system.(( * Neural*stem*cells* Immature(“uncommitted”(cells(that(can(mature(into(any(type(of(neuron(or(glial(cell( needed(by(the(brain.(( ( Endocrine*system* Consists(of(numerous(hormone-secreting(glands(distributed(throughout(the(body.( ( Hormones* Chemical(messengers(that(are(secreted(from(its(glands(into(the(bloodstream.( ( Adrenal*glands* Twin(structures(perched(on(top(of(the(kidneys(that(serve,(quite(literally,(as(hormone( factories,(producing(and(secreting(about(50(different(hormones.(( ( Antigens* Foreign(substances(that(trigger(a(biochemical(response(from(the(immune(system((e.g.( bacteria,(viruses,(abnormal(cells,(chemical(molecules).(( (

Chapter(5(

Sensation*and*perception* * Sensation* The(stimulus(detection(process(by(which(our(sense(organs(respond(to(and(translate( environmental(stimuli(into(nerve(impulses(that(are(sent(to(the(brain( ( Perception* Making(sense(of(what(our(senses(tell(us.(It(is(the(active(process(of(organizing(this( stimulus(input(and(giving(it(meaning.(( ( Stimulus,is,received,by,sensory,receptors,=>,receptors,translate,stimulus,properties,into, nerve,impulses,(transduction),=>,feature,detectors,analyse,stimulus,features,=>,neural, representation,is,compared,with,previously,stored,information,in,brain,=>,matching, process,results,in,recognition,and,interpretation,of,stimulus.,, ( Psychophysics* Studies(the(relationship(between(the(physical(characteristics(of(stimuli(and(sensory( capabilities.(( ( Absolute*threshold* The(lowest(intensity(at(which(a(stimulus(can(be(detected(50(%(of(the(time.(( ( Decision*criterion** A(standard(of(how(certain(they(must(be(that(a(stimulus(is(present(before(they(will(say( they(detect(it( ( Signal-detection*theory* Is(concerned(with(the(factors(that(influence(sensory(judgements( ( Difference*threshold* Defined(as(the(smallest(difference(between(two(stimuli(that(people(can(perceive(50(%(of( the(time.( ( Weber’s*law* States(that(the(difference(threshold,(or(just(noticeable(difference,(is(directly(proportional( to(the(magnitude(of(the(stimulus(with(which(the(comparison(is(being(made.(Weber’s( fraction.( ( Sensory*adaptation* The(diminishing(sensitivity(to(an(unchanging(stimulus( ( Transduction* The(process(whereby(tha(characteristics(of(a(stimulus(are(converted(into(nerve(impulses( ( Lens* An(elastic(structure(that(becomes(thinner(to(focus(on(distant(objects(and(thicker(to(focus( on(nearby(objects.( (

Retina* Multi-layered(light-sensitive(tissue(at(the(rear(of(the(fluid-filled(eyeball.(( ( Rods* Function(best(in(dim(light,(are(primarily(black-and-white(brightness(receptors.(( ( Cones* Colour(receptors,(function(best(in(bright(illumination.(( ( Fovea( Small(area(in(the(centre(of(the(retina(that(contains(no(rods(but(many(densely(packed( cones.(( ( Optic*nerve* Ganglion(cells,(whose(axons(are(collected(into(a(bundle(to(form(the(optic(nerve.( ( Visual*acuity* Ability(to(see(fine(detail.(( ( Bi...