Appunti e schemi programma di lettorato inglese PDF

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Riassunti e preparazione per l'esame di lettorato di lingua inglese...

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1 ENGLISH Grammar Present tenses Present simple -> use:! • regolar activities: I watch TV every evening.! • long-term situation: Leila and Selim live in Tunis.! • things that are always true: Winter begins on 21 December.! • timetabled events: My plane leaves at 12.50.! • instead of will in subordinate clauses that refer to the future: I’ll phone you as soon as I arrive.! • when can be followed by will (or would) in reported and embedded questions: I wonder when Julie will be back.! • for giving and asking for directions or instructions: How do I get to your office?! Present continuous -> use:! • action happening now or around now: I’m watching for my flight.! • to talk about present trends: The number of passengers is rising.! • repeated actions and events if they are happening around now: The new manager is travelling.! • future arrangements and plans: Our company is relocating to India next year.! Verbs that don’t use present continuous:! • verbs referring to the senses (feel, taste, hear, see, smell, sound): I see what you mean.! • verbs referring to mental and emotional states (wish, know, imagine, believe, doubt, realise, recognise, suppose, understand, like, dislike, hate, prefer, want): They understand our point of view.! • other verbs (agree, disagree, mean, promise, depend on, belong, need, owe, own, posses): The group owns a supermarket chain in Spain.! Present perfect simple -> use:! We use the present perfect simple to talk about a present situation which is connected to the past -> three headings:! 1. Recent news/new information -> focus on the current importance of the past event, i.e on the present result of the past event -> when it happened isn’t important and isn’t mentioned: ! # I’ve finished the report. (you can have it now)! We often use the present perfect to give news: ! # Guess what. My computer has crashed.! 2. Experience -> finished actions that happened in our life up to now:! # I love that film. I’ve seen it three times. (three times in my life so far)! # Alex has won several business awards. (up to now)! # Have you ever been to Singapore? (at any time of your life)! # I’ve never given a business presentation. (never in my life so far)! 3. Duration from the past until now -> unfinished actions, i.e. actions or states that began in the past and are still continuing now:! # Barbara has worked as an accountant for a long time.! # Rick has worked for Breitner & Schultz since 1995.!

2 The time expressions for and since are often used to connect the past and present. We use for with a period of time and since with a point of time.! When we speak about “unfinished time” we often use the adverbs already and yet to describe things which are happening expected to happen around the present. The adverb already may express some surprise, e.g. because something has happened sooner than expected:! # She’s only 28 but she’s already written three novels.! We use not yet to describe something that hasn’t happened so far but is expected to happen in the future:! # He hasn’t found the right business partner yet.! Present perfect continuous -> use:! • actions and situations which started in the past and are still going on or have just stopped:! # Food prices have been going up steadily all this year. (still going on)! # Sorry I’m out of breathing. I’ve been running. (just stopped)! • when we use it together with another verb in the present, there is often a relation of cause and effect between the two verbs:! # He has a nice tan. He’s been sunbathing.! # My hands are dirty. I’ve been painting the shed.! • for repeated actions:! # Customers have been phoning me all day.! # How long have you been taking those tablets?! • is also used with words and expressions that refer to a period of time up to now (e.g. today, this week, recently, lately, for, since, how long, etc.):! # The kids have been playing computer games since 4 o’clock.! # It’s been raining for the last two weeks.! Present perfect simple vs. Present perfect continuous! We can often use either the present perfect simple or continuous, and there is only a small change of emphasis.! # Danilo has worked / has been working as a firefighter for twelve years.! # It has snowed / has been snowing non-stop since Monday.! We tend to prefer the present perfect simple for permanent or long-term situations, and the present perfect continuous for temporary or shorter actions and situations. Compare:! # These giant rocks have lain here for centuries.! # Sven has been lying on the beach since breakfast.! # My aunt has always worked really hard.! # My aunt has been working really hard lately.! When we use the present simple, we are interested in the result of the action, not so much in the action itself.! # Giancarlo has fixed the engine. ( = so now it’s working normally)! But when we use the present perfect continuous, we are more interested in the action itself.! # “Why are your hands dirty?”! # “Well, I’ve been fixing the engine.” (I may or may not heaven finished)! We use the present perfect simple to say how many things we’ve done, or how much we’ve do, or how many times we’ve done something. But we use the present perfect continuous to say how long we’ve been doing something. Compare:! # I’ve written 25 emails.! # I’ve been writing emails all day.!

3 # I’ve visited my main customers five times this month.! # I’ve been visiting a lot of my customers over the last three days.! Past tenses Past simple -> use:! The past simple is often considered the default tense to talk about past actions and situations, i.e. we use it unless we have a particular reason for using another past tense. We often use it when we tell stories or when we describe past events, and we also often use il together with words or phrases referring to the past (e.g. two hours ago, yesterday afternoon, last week, in 2009, when I was child, etc). However, past time expressions (e.g. last year, two years ago, etc.) aren’t always in the sentence, e.g. To everyone’s surprise, Jill left the company. This is the case when it’s clear that the speaker is talking about the past.! Past simple vs. Present perfect simple We use both these tenses to talk about actions that started or finished in the past. The main difference is that we use the past simple to describe actions that happened in a completed time period, whereas we use the present perfect when there is a connection with the present. ! When we use the past simple, our focus is on “When?”, while we use the present perfect to say something about “now” in one way or another. Compare:! # How many symphonies did Beethoven compose?! # Have you heard Hefner’s latest recording of Beethoven’s symphonies?! Expressions like last year, in 1989, when I was child, three months ago, etc. are about finished time and are therefore always used with the past simple.! By contrast, expressions such as since, already, this week, never, ever, today, etc. connect the past to the present and are therefore used with the present perfect.! Note that the time expression for can mean:! • from a point in the past till another point in the past:! # He worked in Barcelona for six years. (e.g. from 1995 till 2001)! from a point in the past till now:! • # He has worked in Barcelona for six years. (he still works there)! However, time expressions aren’t always to be found in the sentence itself. That’s because when we communicate, we often assume that the context makes it clear to our interlocutor whether we are focusing on the past or making a link with the present. We also often assume that our interlocutor has some knowledge of what we’re talking about, and so will understand what our focus is.! # Hey, Jim, did you see Kerad’s goal? ( = both speaker and listener know that the ## # question is about yesterday’s football match, in which Kerad scored a spectacular # # goal)! So the choice between past simple and present perfect often depends on where your attention is. Compare:! # I’ve passed my driving test.! # I passed my driving test.! Both these sentences are “correct” but they mean different things. The first one is news; you’re giving new information; your attention is on now. In the second sentence, by contrast, you’re telling a story; you are probably talking about a series of past events.! When we give new information or beak a piece of news, we use the present perfect to present our “topic”. But if we go on to give details, we normally use the past simple.! # You know what? I’ve lost my passport. I think I lost it at the airport. It was in my # # handbag.!

4 Past continuous -> use:! • to say that something was going on around a particular time in the past: What was the manager doing when you went into his office?! • we often use the past continuous and the past simple together, the continuous form describes the background action or situation, while the simple form describes a shorter action or event that happened in the middle of it: We first met while we were travelling around the world.! • we use it also to show that two or more actions were in progress at the same time: While she was studying for M.A., she was also working part-time.! in narrative, we often use the past continuous for descriptions, and the past simple • for events or actions: The rain was falling in torrents. The trees were swaying like windscreen wipers. Suddenly a figure appeared from behind the hedge.! • sometimes we use past simple in phrases like I was thinking/wondering/hoping to make a request or a suggestion sound less direct:! # I was thinking that it might be a good idea to leave earlier.! # I was wondering if you’d like to join me for lunch.! Past perfect simple -> use:! • when we are already talking about the past and we want to refer back to an earlier point in time or period of time:! # We arrived at the conference venue late. The first workshop had already started.! # The boss wasn’t in when I arrived. He had just gone out.! • compare past simple and past perfect simple:! # When I arrived, Diego left. (first I arrived, then he left, i.e. these two events are in # # chronological order)! # When I arrived, Diego had left. (he had left before I arrived, i.e. the sequence of # # # events is not chronological)! • we often use the past perfect simple in reported speech, and with verbs like said, thought, informed, realized, etc. ! They informed us they had found another supplier.! # I realized I had left my wallet at home.! • we also use the past perfect simple after words like if, wish, etc. to talk about hypothetical actions and situations, i.e. to talk about things that didn’t happen:! # If you had seen me last week, you wouldn’t have recognized me. ( = you didn’t see # me)! # I wish you’d told me the truth. ( = but you didn’t tell me)! Past perfect continuous -> use:! • we use it to talk about actions and situations that started in the past and continued up until another time in the past -> when we use il together with another verb in the past simple, there is often a relation of cause and effect between the two verbs: Jane wasn’t doing anything special when I went round to her place but she was exhausted. She had been digging her garden.! • compare past continuous and past perfect continuous:! # I went out. It was snowing. ( = snow was falling)! # I went out, It has been snowing. ( = the snow had stopped falling, but there was ## # snow on the ground)! • compare past perfect simple and past perfect continuous:! # Emma had been reading reports all day, so she was in a bad mood.! # Emma had read all the reports, so she knew the facts.!

5 The continuous form stresses the continuation of an activity, whereas the simple form stresses the idea of completion.! Past simple and past perfect We often use the past simple to describe past events or to tell a story in chronological order:! # I slipped, tripped, stumbled and fell.! # Sheila worked for Singapore Airlines for fifteen years. She retired three years ago.! But when we talk about a past event, and then want to mention an event that happened before the event, we need to make the sequence of events clear. We can do this in different ways, e.g. we can use words like earlier, later, before, after, etc: ! She retired before she wrote her bestseller.! We can also use the past perfect to talk about the earlier event:! # She had already retired when she wrote her bestseller.! Note that if we use before or after to make the time sequence clear, we can use either the past simple or the past perfect for the earlier action:! # A lot of people left / had left the room before we got there.! # We got there after they left / had left.! Time expressions like since, for, already, yet, just, meanwhile, once, by, etc. are often used with the past perfect:! # She had worked in Singapore for fifteen years when she retired.! # By the time she retired, she had worked in Singapore for fifteen years.! We often use the past perfect with verbs like remember, realise, know, think, etc. (when these are in the past simple):! # I thought you had forgotten me.! # We were sure we had followed the instructions carefully.! Future forms Present simple -> use:! • we use present simple to talk about events that are scheduled in the future or that are in a timetable:! # My flight gets in at 12.15.! # Our sale doesn’t start untile next Wednesday.! # What time does the train to Tallinn leave?! • we also use present simple to refer to the future, after as soon as, by the time, when and until:! # We’ll inform you of the outcome as soon as we make a decision. (at some point in # the future)! # The painting will be finished by the time the forniture arrives.! # He’s going to call when he leaves Mexico City.! # They won’t send the goods until we pay the deposit.! The modal verb will -> use:! • when we’re making prediction:! # In ten years’ time, he’ll be CEO of this company.! # Oil prices will rise steadily in the next quarter.! • when we’re deciding something at the moment of speaking:! # There isn’t any printer paper so we’ll buy some later.! # It’s a lovely day so I’ll walk to work.! to make offers and promises:! •

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I’ll open the door for you.! We’ll meet your train and give you a lift to the office.! • in sentences with if (see conditional sentences)!

Going to -> use:! • we often use the expressions going to when we talk about intentions and future plans when we have already decided to do something:! # I’m going to buy a new car tomorrow. (I intend to purchase a car)! # Are you going to work late this evening? (Do you intend to work late?)! • we can also use going to when present evidence or trends suggest that something will happen in the future:! # That pile of wood doesn’t look safe. It’s going to fall.! # This traffic is really bad. We’re going to miss our flight.! Compare these sentences using going to and will:! # Property prices in the city centre are going to rise in the next six months. (based # # on present evidence or trends)! # Property prices in the city centre will rise in the next six months. (in the speaker’s # # option)! Present continuous -> use:! We often use the present continuous to talk about future plans and firm arrangements:! # He’s flying to Japan tomorrow morning.! # We aren’t meeting the board of directors until Friday.! # When are you leaving for the airport?! Compare these sentences using the present continuous and going to:! # I’m taking our new clients to lunch. (this is arranged and is in my diary)! # I’m going to take our new clients to lunch. (this is my intention but it isn’t arranged # # yet)! Future perfect -> use:! • to say that something will have been done or completed by a point in the future:! # By June, I’ll have finished my training course.! # They’ll have made a decision by the end of the week.! • we often use by with the future perfect -> we can use by to talk about a future event that will occur at or before a future moment:! # Will the money have been paid into my account by the end of the month?! # The contract won’t have arrived by the deadline.! Question forms Yes/no questions -> in yes/no questions, the word order is: auxiliary + subject + main verb -> the auxiliary can be do/does, did, was/were, has/have, had or a modal (will, can, should, etc.) -> when we use be as a main verb, we use it before the subject:! # Are you late? ! # Was she efficient?! Wh- questions -> in wh- questions, the word order is: question word/phrase + auxiliary + subject + main verb:! # Why do you want a bigger office?! # When are they leaving?! # Where did you see that advertisement?! # Whose translation were you correcting?!

7 # Which candidates have they selected?! # Where had you worked before then?! # How much will the new equipment cost?! Subject questions -> we don’t use do/does/did when the question word is the subject of the question -> compare:! # Who did you call? (you is the subject, who is the object)! # Who called you? (who is the subject, you is the object)! # What did they do? (they is the subject, what is the object)! # What happened? (what is the subject)! # How many copies do they need? (they is the subject, how many copies is the # # # object)! # How many people know about it? (how many people is the subject)! Asking questions Embedded questions -> when we ask for information, we often begin out question with a phrase like Could you tell me..? / Do you know..? / Do you think..? / I wonder.. / I’d like to know.. etc. Such forms are called “embedded” or “indirect” questions, and we often use them to sound less direct or more polite. The word order in an embedded question is the same as in a statement -> compare:! # Where is the warehouse? / Could you tell me where the warehouse is?! # When can you do it? / Do you know when you can do it?! # Who are those people? / I wonder who those people are?! In the direct question is a wh- question and therefore has the auxiliary do/does/did, we don’t use the auxiliary in the embedded question:! # What time does the meeting start? / I’d like to know what time the meeting start.! # What do you think? / I don’t know what you think?! # Why did you agree to do it? / I don’t understand why you agreed to do it.# If the direct question is a yes/no question, where there is no question word or modal, we use if or whether in the embedded question:! # Does Tom like working shifts? / I wonder if Tom likes working shifts?! # Did they sign the contracts? / Can you tell me whether they signed the contract?! The rules regarding word order in embedded questions also apply to reported questions:! # ‘What has Jo done?’ asked Bill. / Bill asked me what Jo had done.! # ‘Why do you need a holiday?’ the boss asked me / The boss asked me why I needed a holiday.! Negative questions -> use:! • for confirmation of s positive belief when we expected the answer to be ‘yes’ and for confirmation of a negative belief where we expect the answer to be ‘no’ -> they can also be used to express surprise or disapproval:! # Weren’t you in Madrid last week? (I believe you were)! # Haven’t you finished that report yet? (I believe you are too busy)! # Didn’t you get my email yesterday? (I don’t think you have)! # Doesn’t he ever stop talking? (disapproval)! negative questions can also be used to make polite invitations:! • # Won’t you take a seat?! # Wouldn’t you like something to drink?! negative yes/no questions can suggest a positive meaning:! • # Didn’t I say that we’d win the contract? (I said that we’d win the contract)! # Haven’t we spent enough time on his agenda point? ( = we have spent # # # # enough time on the point)!

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# # #

• we can also use wh- question words with negative questions to get information and make suggestion:! Who hasn’t had time to read the report?! Why don’t they buy an apartment in Berlin?! when we respond to negative questions, we use yes to suggest a positive verb and • no to suggest a negative verb:! Haven’t you sent the email? No, I haven’t / Yes, I have sent it.!

Modality Modal overview A Temperatures reached 35°C yesterday.! This vase is 700 years old.! We never eat meat.! Luke drives fast.! They worked quietly.

B It must be hot in the south.! This vase might be 700 years old.! We could have fish tomorrow.! Luke shouldn’t drive so fast.! Be quiet!

The sentences in A are all objective statements of fact, whereas those in B tell us someth...