Cultural Studies - Een samenvatting van de hoofdstukken uit Britain die gekend moeten zijn voor PDF

Preview

Summary

Een samenvatting van de hoofdstukken uit Britain die gekend moeten zijn voor VS3 Engels (aan de hand van de prezi's op Chamilo)...

Description

2 VS3 EN : Cultural Studies Education Education UK basic features  same as anywhere else in Europe and North America:  full-time education is compulsory up to the middle teenage years  the academic year begins at the end of summer  compulsory education is free of charge, but parents may spend money on education their child privately if they want to Public means private! schools funded by the government, either directly or via local education authorities  state schools = state education ↔ private education (independent schools) = public schools America: schools organized by the government = ‘public schools’  public school system there are three recognized stages • first stage (primary)  second stage (secondary) at around the age of eleven or twelve

Historical background until end of 19th century: British government attached little importance to education  one of the last countries to organise education for everybody (≈ industry and commerce) educational institutions existed long before this  government incorporated them into the overall system and left alone the small group of schools which were used to educate the sons of the upper and upper-middle classes = ‘public’ schools The public school system Historically, stereotypical public schools: • for boys only, from age 13 onwards, most attended a private ‘prep’ (preparatory) school • fee-paying pupils (and some scholarship pupils who have won a place in a competitive entrance exam and whose parents do not pay) • = boarding schools (the boys live there during term) • divided into ‘houses’, each ‘house’ being managed by a ‘housemaster’ • some of the senior boys are made ‘prefects’ = authority over other boys, own servants (‘fags’) who are appointed from amongst the youngest boys • great emphasis on team sports • enforce the rules with use of physical punishment • not at all luxurious/comfortable  traditional image no longer fits the facts girl’s public schools  nowadays mixed sex schools day pupils as well as boarders (some are day schools only) prefects have not much power or are abolished in general fagging has disappeared no more physical punishment less emphasis on team sport, more on academic achievement more physically comfortable life for the pupils  e.g. Eton, Harrow, Rugby, and Wincester

‘character building’ and ‘team spirit’ > academic achievement  prepared men to take up positions in the higher ranks of society distinctive customs, attitudes, clothes, and items of vocabulary  when finished  ruling elite (what they learnt at school) = closed group 20th century: education becomes available for everyone  new schools tended to copy the features of the public schools

Modern times: the education debates “Education, education, education” (Tony Blair, 1997)  Labour party general feeling in Britain that there was something wrong with the system of education: QUALITY  British children receive inferior education (compared to other European children)  employers and universities complain about the basic knowledge and skills  ‘grade inflation’ = the standard of a top ‘A’ grade is lower than it used to be The three Rs = basic literacy and numeracy • Reading • wRiting • aRithmetic Britain suffers from a chronic shortage of teachers  only half of the teacher-trainers remain in the profession for longer than three years  unsettled sphere in schools due to rapid turnover of staff + class sizes are large tradition of English anti-intellectualism  often difficult to persuade pupils, esp. boys, to be interested in learning  teachers in Britain have rather low status  people blame the teachers for the poor educational standards teachers spend a lot of time being inspected* and filling in forms to prove they are doing a proper job  makes the job seem even less attractive *Ofsted = government organisation which inspects schools in Britain Help from abroad  thousands of teachers are recruited every year  teachers are often appalled at the behaviour of British schools and find it very hard  only temporary, but good experience  government is so grateful, they lay on special receptions for them and help them get a visa  other countries accuse Britain of exporting their educational crisis NATIONAL CURRICULUM = body of documents which specifies what children in state schools are supposed to learn at each stage in their school careers  revision (sometimes, it seems, almost constantly)

SOCIAL JUSTICE  elitist history of schooling in Britain and its social effects (?)  importance they attach to fairness (?)  British are forever worrying about equal opportunities in education until the 1970’s the system reinforced class distinctions (grammar ↔ secondary modern schools)  now instead most 11 yo go to the same local school = comprehensive schools the fact that most of the teenagers who get the best exam results (and therefore progress to university) are those from relatively advantaged backgrounds and vice versa  university education became much more important the past few decades  gap between high earners and low earners has become wider than it used to be  equality of educational opportunity is more important than it used to be it’s almost impossible to provide real equality  children of parents who care about education the most, esp. if they have money, tend to get what they want for them (i.e. moving house to make sure their child can go to a school with good exam results because children must attend a school in the local area) only way to reduce inequalities = ban all independent education and introduce lotteries for allocating places in secondary schools but... FREEDOM OF CHOICE + belief that it would improve the quality of education in schools generally  publication of ‘league tables’ of school exam results  unfortunately makes clear which are the most desirable schools freedom of choice also implies a limit to what central government can impose generally  British dislike of uniformity is the reason why Britain got a national curriculum so much later than other European countries (end of 19th century)  since then there have been complaints which resulted in modifications that reduced the number of compulsory elements Languages anyone? poor state of language-learning in British schools low level of foreign language ability in general among the British population  curriculum: ‘modern foreign languages’ were left out English students can drop foreign languages completely from their studies after the age of 14  fewer than 10% learn a foreign language beyond the age of 16

School uniforms school uniforms are customary ever since schools made their appearance in Britain  sign of status (back when only the rich could go to school) when schooling became universal, most schools took this lead and insisted on their pupils wearing uniform  mark of aspiration 60’s and 70’s: more and more schools abandoned uniforms (burden on parents’ finances and stifling creativity and individualism)

last 20 years: vast majority of parents are in favour of uniforms, for the exact same reason that made them want to get rid of them - money  these days buying a uniform is probably less expensive than buying their children the fashionable clothes they otherwise demand  schools can work towards the objectives of the national curriculum in any way it likes government doesn’t dictate the exact hours of the school day or the exact dates of holidays it doesn’t manage the school’s finances either - it just decides how much money to give it it does not set or supervise the marking of the exams which older teenagers do  as many details as possible are left up to the individual institution or the LEA (Local Education Authority)

Style learning  of comparatively high value emphasis on quality of person that education produced (↔ quality of abilities it produced)  last 50 years this changed: focus on how schools can help their pupils become good members of society  national curriculum includes ‘citizenship’ and various other personal matters such as ‘sex and relationships education’ + ‘physical education’  high priority to sport (helps develop the ‘complete’ person)  school as a community and enhancement of reputation priority to developing understanding and sophistication of approach over the accumulation of factual knowledge

School life all children are guaranteed a free, part-time early education place for up to two years before reaching compulsory school age (= age of 5) British children spend more time at school than other European children  schooldays aren’t longer (starting around 9 a.m. and finishing between 3 p.m. and 4 p.m. + lunch break of about an hour and a quarter)  full five-day week (no half day) and holiday periods are short

Summer Holiday (about 6 weeks)

Summer term

Easter Holiday (about 2 weeks)

Spring term

Christmas Holiday (about 2 weeks)

Autumn term

The school year three ‘terms’, starting at the beginning of September ‘half-term’ (half-term holiday) lasting a few days or a week in the middle of each term

almost all schools are either primary or secondary schools only different teaching methods: balance between formal lessons and children working in small groups primary schools  class teacher who teaches all subjects, often with help of a teaching assistant age of 7 and 11 : children have to take national tests in English, mathematics and science secondary education  different teachers for different subjects + regular homework ‘streaming’: children are separated into groups according to perceived abilities ↔ ‘mixed ability’ classes Public exams at the end of compulsory schooling  exams involve knowledge and skills specified by the national curriculum  in principle separate from the school systems: organized neither by schools nor by the government  ‘public’ the exams are set and marked by largely independent examining boards  each board published its own separate syllabus for each different subject each schools or LEA decides which board’s exams its pupils take combination of coursework assignment and formal, sit-down exams (trouble with the internet!) History? But which history? exam boards  not so independent as they used to be  Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) = oversees the exam boards change of A-level history syllabuses in 2008  needed a larger British component • early 20th century: most history in British schools consisted of learning, in minute detail, about the glories of the British empire • 2nd half of the century: reaction  by the end of the century Britain was more or less ignored  focus on 20th century dictatorships  this reaction had gone too far another reason for renewed British emphasis: reality of multicultural Britain  a very large number of children cannot rely on learning from their parents about the culture and history of the country in which they were born and are being brought up

Education beyond sixteen before 2013  people were free to leave school at the age of 16 from September 2013: people starting Year 11 will need to continue in some form of education/training until the end of the academic year in which they turn 18  on-the-job training, sometimes combined with part-time college courses  full-time education Sixth-form colleges or College of Further Education  ‘lifelong learning’: adults can also participate Sixth form ‘form’ = a class of pupils in public schools  ‘class’

 ‘years’ only in education beyond 16 it’s called ‘sixth form those who study conventional academic subjects are often more specialized than in most other countries  a pupil spends 2 whole years studying just three or four subjects, usu. related, in preparation for taking A-levels Academic exams and qualifications GCSE = General Certificate of Secondary Education  15-16 yo in England, Wales and Northern Ireland  marks are given for each subject separately  syllabuses/methods differ in every board  uniform system of marks (A  G and A, B and C are regarded as ‘good’ grades) SCE = Scottish Certificate of Education  Scottish equivalent of GCSE  set by Scottish Examinations Board  grades are awarded in numbers, 1 being the best A levels = Advanced Levels  higher level academic exams set by the same examining boards that set GCSE exams  Year 12: AS (Advanced Subsidiary) level  Year 13 (when they turn 18): A2 level  AS + A2  A-level qualification, which is needed for entrance to universities there is some dissatisfaction with the A-level system  adopting foreign model (International Baccalaureate) SCE ‘Advanced Highers = Scottish equivalent of A-levels Degree = a qualification from a university Bachelor’s Degree = general name for a first degree  BA (Bachelor of Arts) or BSc (Bachelor of Science)  ‘undergraduates’  ‘graduates’  honours degrees, awarded in different classes: 1. Class I (‘a first’) 2. Class II.I (‘a 2.1’ or ‘an upper second’) 3. Class II.II (‘a 2.2’ or ‘a lower second’) 4. Class III (‘a third’) 5. student below one of these gets a pass degree Master’s Degree = general name for a second (postgraduate) degree  MA (Master of Arts) or MSc (Master of Science)  Scottish universities: used for first degrees

Doctorate = highest academic qualification  PhD (Doctor of Philosophy)  time taken to complete varies independence of Britain’s educational institutions  universities  make their own choices of who to accept for their courses  select students on basis of A-level results and a few conduct interviews UCAS = University Central Admission Service  if you want to study full time for a first degree at a British university, you have to apply through the UCAS  they don’t make any decision on your application (messenger between you and universities) availability of higher education increased greatly in the last second half of the 20th century, but finding a university place is still not easy  limited number of people who can be accepted on each course limitation  students at university get a relatively high degree of personal supervision  majority completes their studies students also live ‘on campus’ or in rooms nearby  surrounded by a university atmosphere

Types of university Oxbridge = Oxford + Cambridge (founded in medieval period)  ‘fellows’ teach the college students, either one-to-one or in very small groups (‘tutorials’ in Oxford and ‘supervisions’ in Cambridge) The old Scottish universities by 1600  four universities • Glasgow • Edinburgh • Aberdeen • St. Andrews  pattern of study is closer to Continental tradition than to the English one The early nineteenth-century English universities Durham University (°1832) University of London (°1836) The older civic (‘redbrick’) universities 19th century: various institutes of higher education, usu. with a technical bias, sprang up in the new industrial towns (Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds)  brick (‘redbrick’)  for local people  at first, prepare for London University degrees, later they could award their own degrees The campus universities purpose-built institutions located in the countryside outside a nearby town

e.g. East Anglia, Lancaster, Sussex, °1960’s accommodation for students on site emphasis on relatively ‘new’ academic disciplines (social sciences, ...)

Warwick

The newer civic universities originally technical colleges  later upgraded: Two waves:  mid 1960’s ten of them were promoted by local authorities  early 1970’s another thirty became ‘polytechnics’ (= continue former courses + teach degree courses)  1990’s these became universities as well  flexibility to studying arrangements

Education USA basic values  everyone deserves an equal opportunity to get a good education 1825: basic system of public schools was established  schools were open to all classes of Americans  financed with tax money collected from all citizens practical content  teaching vocational skills and duties of citizenship

The Educational Ladder elementary school  high school  college undergraduate and graduate programs      

age of 3 or 4  preschool programs age of 5  kindergarten elementary school (5-6 years) middle school (2-3 years) high school (4 years) college

undergraduate studies  bachelor’s degree (= ‘college diploma’) community college  associate degree (vocational or technical fields) bachelor’s degree  professional studies  degrees in professions such as law and medicine, or graduate studies  master’s doctoral degrees American public schools  free and open to all at elementary and secondary (high school) level public colleges and universities charge tuition + competitive entrance requirements 10% attend private schools  religious schools which receive financial support + tuition NOTE: Charter schools = schools to which the state, local or federal government (or private organization) has given money and special permission to operate but that are operated by parents, private companies, etc., rather than by the public school system elite private schools  only for wealthy families (although scholarships are offered to talented children who can’t pay the tuition)  inequality (extra educational and social advantage) inequality: school funding  money comes from local level so school districts that have more wealthy families can spend more  today: states pay the largest amount of funding, federal government pays an average of 10% of the cost (however the amount a local district spends on the schools still have huge impact)

Attending an American University universities are very expensive public universities < private universities financial aid programs  loans and scholarships expenses of buying books and living away from home  even less expensive public universities are too high-priced  students work during their college years  sometimes reduces the number of courses they can take and increases the time it takes to complete a degree  most people graduate with significant debt from student loans

community college : two-year colleges  associate degrees  less expensive  after 2 years students can transfer to state university

Tuition and fees Room, board, books, etc. Total cost Net price (after scholarships, grants, aid)

Public two-year (in-state) $ 3,131 $ 12,453 $ 15,584 $ 4,350

Public four-year (in-state) $ 8,655 $ 13,606 $ 22,261 $ 5,750

Private four-year $29,056 $ 14,233 $ 43,289 $ 15,680

percentage of Americans seeking a college education continues to grow  over 50% the monetary value of education  the more schooling people have, the more money they will earn when they leave school  more and more education is required to do a job importance of higher education  many adults combine working with taking classes at a college = distance learning MOOCs = Massive Open Online Courses  focus on learning experience

Educating the Individual developing critical-thinking is more important than acquiring quantities of facts  ask questions, think for themselves, express their own opinions  teach children how to learn and to help them reach their maximum potential development of social and interpersonal skills is as important as the development of intellectual skills  extracurricular activities e.g. sports or student government or other clubs and activities

The Standards Movement since 1990’s: national goals for education  standards for all stages of education + teacher education programs annual testing (federal government) + series of examinations (states)  standards: Common Core Standards  focus on concepts and procedures that are needed for entry into college or the workforce (over the states) early 2000’s: federal program ‘No Child Left Behind’ (NCLB)  holding schools and teachers accountable for student progress by means of standardized tests  parents could remove their kids from schools with low or failing grades and send them to schools with better grades  ‘teaching to the test’ (memorization of facts instead of asking questions and thinking for oneself) critique: parents want to have their children attend a school i...